STA Travel Case Study Essay Example for Free

STA Travel Case Study Essay History/Situation: STA Travel is a subsidiary of a privately held company, Diethelm Keller Holding LTD, marketing as the worlds largest student travel organization helping students travel in over 90 countries. Historically, STA utilized retail travel agencies located near or on college campuses; however the Internet has introduced new online competitors. The internet is predicted to account for more bookings than offline alternatives. In response to STA’s global customer base, STA delegated the responsibility to the local level while using an integrated information system to provide global support and solutions. STA’s philosophy is â€Å"local as possible, global as necessary†. STA launched a business strategy, One Company, to align business operations with customer needs across the world. In support of this global standardization emerged BLUEe, a unified sales and booking system supporting every STA point of purchase backed by a single network, infrastructure, finance and reporting system. STA’s North American division developed STATRAVEL193.COM, an interactive website with video reports from STA customers about travel destinations. They also were the first to explore the Second Life (SL) marketing tool. STA’s Global Webmaster, Craig Hepburn, also welcomed the SL idea however he knew it would be a tough sell to marketing departments in other countries. STA had a two prong approach to utilize SL. One was to hold a movie making competition among SL residents which would highlight their virtual worlds. STA could then use the best of the videos to provide the services to the SL world as they do in the real world. The second element evolved into creating a separate orientation landing where new comers would be provided basic orientation information and then STA would lead them to exciting places in SL providing another opportunity to provide the services currently provided in the real world. Matt Nixon, Director of E-Commerce, STA Travels North America Division, needed to decide if STA should investment in SL. What is second life? SL is a virtual marketing tool which would provide STA a marketing presence in a computer-simulated virtual world. From the SL website, players can download client software for the game. Players are given a virtual self, an avatar, and a â€Å"second life†. There is a process for new players to get setu p with their avatar, name, account info, avatar accessories, orientation, and avatar skills before choosing to transport to  the mainland to begin their second lives. Players can purchase a premier membership status which provides players an opportunity to setup a business and participate in an economy exchanging US$1MM daily. Opportunities: There was strong evidence of network effect in SL. By early 2007, there were over 3 million â€Å"residents† registered on SL, of which 700,000 had visited SL in the previous 60 days and 12,000-18,000 were typically on line at any given time. Also, real life (RL) businesses, brands and not-for-profit organizations began to explore their own second lives. STA has an opportunity to be one of the first to market in the virtual world travel category. In doing so, they can begin to form partnerships with other RL businesses. As more businesses residents join, STA can continue to grow their partnerships and advertising within SL. Problems: SL is new technology and history shows that technology has a short life cycle. There is risk that SL will not continue to grow long enough for STA to cash in on this signif icant investment. SL could also have a negative impact on STA’s brand image if potential customers begin to identify STA with a virtual business and not a real life business that can provide real world travel services. STA’s real world revenue will be a key metric in measuring the impact of SL. Although, STA’s SL approach simulates the services they offer in the real world; I think it will be difficult for residents to make the connection from STA’s virtual world services to the real world services. Also, college students’ schedules are packed full with studies, work and socializing therefore majority will not have time to maintain a virtual second life. Finally, the current retail travel agencies will likely resist the SL marketing tool because the success of SL represents lost commissions for the retail agencies. What type of individuals make up the Second Life community? What do you believe will be the evolution of Second Life and other Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) in the near future? The primary users in SL are gamers and tech savvy individuals who spend a lot of time in at the computer. Those that prefer virtual reality often don’t have a desire to travel the world for several reasons; they don’t like flying, leaving home, they can’t afford it, or their schedule doesn’t allow enough time. I don’t believe the current SL users will seek out STA’s real world services. I also don’t believe there is an opportunity for STA to gain share through SL because those who enjoy traveling in real  life prefer to experience it in person not virtually. These two demographics are independent; therefore the virtual players cannot provide a read on travel trends for the real life traveler. I also don’t expect SL to continue long enough for STA to make any gains in market share. How do you propose that STA Travel should go about establishing a presence in Second Life? How can the firm spawn the traffic needed for generating revenues? I struggle to find any basis for STA to move forward with establishing a presence in SL which will appeal to their target audience and generate revenues. I believe there is a missing link between the virtual reality and the real world services. I also think STAs target audience will remain a minority in the SL virtual reality user community. Evaluate the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of this initiative. What would you propose to the executive team if you were Matt? Why? The SL actual costs not provided in this case, however the total cost of ownership must include the following: lease, setup, development, training of STA employees, maintenance, end of life, migration, integration with software programs, security, testing, data backup storage, insurance, marketing expense, global staffing to maintain site 24/7. I believe the cumulative cost of these categories will exceed the benefit because. How would you evaluate the value of Second Life to STA? At this time, I’d do not recommend moving forward on the basis that I do not find any value in SL. STAs target college audience is a minority in the SL user community. I evaluate the value of SL based on the projected increased revenue, profitability, market share and the risks or opportunities. The risks noted previously outweigh any potential advantage SL may provide. Class Material Online community- SL is a virtual reality community brought together by a common interest of wanting to escape reality. Pay for service- SL primary revenue model; they charge a membership to users who want to upgrade and participate in the SL economy which exchanges US$1MM daily. Disintermediation- Historically STA utilized retail travel agencies, however the Internet introduced new online competitors. Market efficiency- STA online competition provides lower costs researching trips. Rather than physically going to the retail travel agent, consumers can search for pricing and availability online. Two-way conversations- STA North America  has an interactive travel blog where customers can post videos of their travel experiences. Recommendation: I do not recommend SL because the risks exceed any gains that may exist. Also, there is not a link between the virtual and real world. I recommend that STA explore other online marketing opportunities.

Importance of Postoperative Pain Management

Importance of Postoperative Pain Management CHAPTER-II Review of literature is a key step in research process. The literature review is to discover what has previously been done about the problem to be studied what remains to be done, what methods have been employed in other research and how the result of other research in the area can be combined to develop knowledge. It is essential step; it can be done before and after selecting the problem. It can help to determine what is already known about the topic (A.P.Jai, 2005). This chapter attempts to present a review of studies done methodology adopted and conclusion attained by earlier investigators which helps in this study. The sources are internet search, textbook, published journal, editorials published and unpublished thesis. In this chapter, the researcher presents the review of the literature under the following headings, Section-I: Studies related to importance of postoperative pain management. Section-II: Studies related to Using Numeric Rating Scale for pain Assessment. Section-III: Studies related to effectiveness of music therapy among General Surgical Patients. Section-IV: Studies related to Effectiveness of Music Therapy among Post Caesarean Mothers. Section-V: Studies related to Gate Control Theory of Pain (Melzack and Wall (1965). Section-VI: Conceptual Framework Based on Gate Control Theory of Pain (Melzack and Wall (1965). SECTION-I: STUDIES RELATED TO IMPORTANCE OF POSTOPERATIVE PAIN MANAGEMENT. Kolawole and Fawole, (2003) conducted a study on Postoperative pain management following caesarean section in University of llorin Teaching Hospital (UITH).llorin, Nigeria. Prospective descriptive design was used to assess the effectiveness of various common methods of analgesia used in hospital following caesarean section. This study was conducted over a period of 18 months. Pain assessment was carried out by 4-point Verbal Rating Scale of None, Mild, Moderate, and severe. The first 24hrs postoperatively was particularly painful for the patient with 79.6% and 54.6% reporting moderate to severe pain in the recovery room and day 1 respectively. They concluded that the pain remains a significant problem following surgical operation in our environment. (PMID.15008293) Seers and Carroll, (1998) conducted a study on Relaxation techniques for acute pain management. They were used a systematic review of randomized controlled trials and seven studies involving 362 patients were included. Three of the seven studies demonstrated significantly less pain sensation or pain distress in those who had relaxation, four studies did not detect any difference. It was concluded that the well designed and executed randomized controlled trials are needed before the clinical use of relaxation in acute pain management can be firmly underpinned by good quality research evidence. So we can recommend that the relaxation in acute pain settings is carefully evaluated and not used as the main treatment for the pain management. SECTION-II: STUDIES RELATED TO USING NUMERIC RATING SCALE FOR PAIN ASSESSMENT. Yaakov Beilin, Jabera Hossain, and Carol, (2009) conducted a study on Numeric Rating Scale and Labor Epidural Analgesia, in this study a Numeric Rating Scale(NRS) used to evaluate pain in research studies, they define desire for additional analgesic medication as a clinically relevant outcome in research studies about pain and compare it with the results of the NRS. A post hoc analysis of three studies that conducted previously in concerning labor epidural analgesia was performed. In all three studies, score was obtained before and 15 min after analgesia. They found that the very few patients (2%) with a score of 0-1 wanted more medication. When the score was 2 or 3, 51% of the patients wanted more medication, and score was >3, almost all patients (93%) wanted more medication. Grouping the final NRS scores into 3 categories (0 or 1, 2 or 3, and >3) is more useful to the clinician than using individual NRS scores. Cinzia Brunelli, (2009) did a study on Comparison of Numerical and Verbal Rating Scales to measure pain exacerbations in patients with chronic Cancer pain. Crosses sectional multicentre study conducted on a sample of 240 advanced cancer patients with pain, background pain and BP were measured by 6-point VRS and 11 point NRS. In order to evaluate the reproducibility of the two scales, a subsample of 60 patients was randomly selected and the questionnaire was administered for a second time three to four hours later. The proportion of inconsistent evaluations was calculated to compare the two scales capability in discriminating between background and peak pain intensity and Cohens K was calculated to compare their reproducibility. It concludes that NRS revealed higher discriminatory capability than VRS in distinguishing between background and peak pain intensity with a lower proportion of patients giving inconsistent evaluations (14% vs. 25%) (Cohens K of 0.86 for NRS vs 0.53 for VRS) while the reproducibility of the two scales in evaluating background pain was similar (Cohens K of 0.80 vs. 0.77). Nathalie Dieudonne, Alexandra Gomola, Philippe Bonnichon, and Yves M.Ozier, (2008) conducted a study on Prevention of postoperative pain after thyroid surgery. In this study double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial used to evaluate the analgesic efficacy of bilateral superficial cervical plexus blocks performed at the end of surgery. Ninety patients were randomized to receive 20 mL isotonic sodium chloride or 20 mL bupivacaine 0.25% with 1:200,000 epinephrines. Postoperative pain was assessed every 4 h using an 11-point numeric rating scale (NRS-11). All patients received acetaminophen every 6 h. In addition, morphine was administered following a standardized protocol if the NRS-11 score was à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥4. The main outcome variables were pain scores (NRS-11), the proportion of patients given morphine at any time during the 24-h period, and the amount of morphine administered. The Bupivacaine group had a smaller proportion of patients given morphine (66.0% vs 90.0%; P = 0.016), and lower initial median pain scores (P = 0.002). SECTION-III: STUDIES RELATED TO EFFECTIVENESS OF MUSIC THERAPY AMONG GENERAL SURGICAL PATIENTS. Sigma Theta Tau International, (2009) conducted a study to assess and compare the effect of music therapy on postoperative pain of patient undergone elective abdominal surgery. A quasi-experimental design was used and convenient samples of 30 (15 in each expcontrol group). Pain was measured by Verbal Rating Scale. Music therapy was given as per patients wish to experimental group and intensity of pain was monitored before and immediately after recovery from anesthesia, during the 1st and 2nd postoperative day for both the groups. Results revealed that those patients who listened to self selected music tapes had significant differences (p Tse MM.Chan Me. Benzie, (2005) conducted a study to find the effectiveness of music therapy on postoperative pain and analgesic use following nasal surgery. Sample size was 57 patients (24females33 males) who were matched for age and sex and then non-selectively assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Music was played intermittently to members of the experimental group during the first 24hrs postoperative period and pain intensity was measured by Verbal Rating Scales. It shows the significant decrease in pain intensity over time were found in the experimental group compared to the control group (p Nilsson, Unosson and Rawal, (2005) conducted a study on Stress reduction and analgesia in patients exposed to calming music postoperatively. The randomized controlled trial was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of music therapy. Seventy-five patients undergoing hernia repair in day care surgery were allocated to three groups: intraoperative music, postoperative music and silence (control group). Patients postoperative pain, anxiety, blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR) and oxygen saturation were studied. The postoperative music group had less anxiety and pain and required less morphine after 1hr compared with the control group. The result concluded that intraoperative music may decrease postoperative pain, and that postoperative music therapy may reduce anxiety, pain and morphine consumption. SECTION- IV: STUDIES RELATED TO EFFECTIVENESS OF MUSIC THERAPY AMONG POST CAESAREAN MOTHERS. Arastirma TAF pre Med Bull, (2009) conducted a study to evaluate the effectiveness of music therapy on postoperative pain after Caesarean section. The sample size was 100 and randomly allocated into two groups (50 in each group).Group 1, patients listened to music through a headphone for 1hour immediately before surgery where as in group-2, not listen to any music during the same period. In the postanaesthesia care unit patients were connected to I.V. PCA device when they were able to respond to commands. The patients level of satisfaction with perioperative care was assessed by a 10cm Visual Analogue Scale and the severity of postoperative pain was assessed by VAS. The results shows that the postoperative tramadol consumption, total amount of tramadol consumption, additional analgesic use and all VAS values were lower in group-1(p Amin Ebneshahidi, and Masood Mohseni, (2008) conducted a study to evaluate the effect of patient selected music on early postoperative pain, anxiety and Hemodynamic profile in Caesarean section. The sample size was 80 who were undergoing elective C.S.surgery enrolled randomly to listen 30 minutes of music or silence by head phones postoperatively. Pain and Anxiety were measured with visual Analogue Scale. Results says that the pain score and postoperative cumulative opioid consumption were significantly lower among patients in the music group (p SECTION-V: STUDIES RELATED TO GATE CONTROL THEORY OF PAIN Marial, (2007) did a study to assess the effectiveness of back massage on pain during first stage of labour among mothers in selected maternity centre at tirupur. 60 samples were selected by using convenient sampling method for the study (experimental group-30 and control group-30). Experimental group received massage were as the control group did not. She used Melzack pain gate control theory for conceptual frame work. Data was collected using behavioral intensity and visual analogue scale. The statistical calculation done was frequency mean, SD, chi-square andt test. The result of the study shows that massage is a cost effective nursing intervention that can decreases the pain perception during labour. Jacintha, (1995) did a study on the effect of back massage during the first stage of labour. She divided the samples in to two groups of 30 each. The experimental group received back massage for 10 minutes per hour. She used non participatory observation technique to observe the maternal behavioral every hour. She used Melzack pain gate control theory for conceptual frame work. The experimental group was interviewed regarding their experience and feelings of back massage before shifting them to the post natal ward. 100% of mothers remembered massage given to them during labour, with feeling of comfortable in 76.66% and relaxed in 43.33%. All the mothers were of the opinion that all mothers in labour should be given back massage. Locsin, (1981) did a study to assess the effectiveness of music on the pain of selected postoperative patients during first 48 hrs. The 24 female gynecology and/ obstetric patients were assign to two groups (control and experimental). The measurement of the experimental variable was done by an Overt Pain Reduction Rating Scale (OPRRS) which is devised by the writer. Significant differences were found between the groups of postoperative patients in their muscular-skeletal and verbal reactions during the first 58hr at the 0.05 level. The conceptual framework of the study was based on the concept of distraction following the Gate Control Theory of Pain by Melzack Wall (1965). The finding says that the music can be used as a nursing measure for postoperative patients. SECTION-VI: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK BASED ON GATECONTROL THEORY OF PAIN (MELZACK AND WALL (1965) The conceptual frame work for the present study was derived from Gate Control Theory of Pain (Melzack and Wall, 1995) Application of Gate Control Theory of Pain Polit and Hungler, (1965) state that a conceptual framework is inter related concept on abstraction that is assembled together in some rational scheme by virtue of their relevance to a common scheme. It is a device that helps to stimulate research and the extension of knowledge by providing both direction and impetus. The present study was aimed at determining the effectiveness of music therapy on intensity of post operative pain among primipara mothers who had Caesarean Section. The conceptual frame work of this study was derived from gate control theory of pain. Gate Control Theory of Pain: Many theories of pain have been presented in the literature. These include specificity, pattern, affect and psychological/behavioral theory (Mander 1998). The most widely used and accepted theory is that of Melzack Wall (1965). These researchers have established that gentle stimulation actually inhibits the sensation of pain. Their gate control theory states that a neural or spinal gating mechanism occurs in the substantiate gelatinosa of the dorsal horns of the spinal cord. The nerve impulses received by nociceptors, the receptors for pain in the skin and tissue of the body, are affected by the gating mechanism. It is the position of the gate that determines whether or not the nerve impulses travel freely to the medulla and the thalamus, thereby transmitting the sensory impulse or message, to the sensory cortex. The pain impulses will be carried out by the small diameter slow conducting A-delta and C fibers. Impulses traveled through small diameter fibers will open the pain gate and the person feels pain. Pain gate is also receiving impulses produced by stimulation of thermo receptors or mechanoreceptors transmitted via large diameter; myellindated A-delta fibers inhibit superimpose the small diameter impulses. (Myles -2003) If the gate is closed, there is little or no conduction, for example distraction, counseling and massage techniques are ways to release endorphins, which close the gate. This prevents or reduces the clients perception of pain (Freeman and Lawlis, 2001) If the gate is open, the impulses and messages pass and are transmitted freely. Therefore, when the gate is open, pain and sensation is experienced. (Potter and Perry, 2009) Many non pharmacological procedures such as hydrotherapy, music therapy (distraction), application of heat or ice, massage, vibration, TENS and movement stimulate the nerve endings connected with large diameter fibres which can produce a reduction of pain by closing the pain gate. Based on the principle of gate control theory, the following conceptual framework was developed. Method used to reduce intensity of postoperative pain is instrumental music which is composed by violin among Primipara mothers who had Caesarean Section. Stimulation of Pain Receptors: Surgical trauma of the uterus due to Caesarean Section stimulates pain receptors in lower abdomen and lumbar area of the back. In the control group there was more stimulation of pain receptors in these areas due to the close contact between the contracting uterus and abdominal and lower back structures. In case of experimental group(Music therapy), there was less stimulation of free nerve ending in the lower abdomen and lumbar area of back compared to the control group due to the distraction caused by music therapy. Travelling of Pain Impulses: Normally pain impulses are traveling through small short conducting A-delta and C fibres. Impulses from stimulation will be distracted by instrumental music and decrease in pain perception produce a reduction of pain by closing the pain gate in experimental group. Gating Mechanism: Pain impulses after the Caesarean Section are transmitted through the spinal nerve segment of T11-12 and accessory lower thoracic and upper lower sympathetic nerves, which are traveled through (A-delta and C) small diameter and slow conducting amyelinated fibres and reach the pain gate and open the gate thus the mother perceives pain in the lower abdomen and lower back. Impulses reduced by music due to decreased in pain perception to travel through fast conducting myelinated A-delta fibres which impose small fibres and close the pain gate. SUMMARY This chapter dealt with the studies related to importance of postoperative pain management, application of music therapy and conceptual frame work based on gate control theory of pain.

All Things Wise And Wonderful :: All Things Wise And Wonderful

All Things Wise and Wonderful James Herriot   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book I read is called All Things Wise and Wonderful, written by James Herriot. This is the 3rd novel in a chain of five. These novels make a very interesting and famous poem. All Things Bright and Beautiful, All Creatures Great and Small, All Things Wise and Wonderful, The Lord God Made Them All. This poem has all of James Herriot’s book titles. James Herriot was a Scottish veterinarian who lived in Scotland during the time of World War Two. You could say that this book is an autobiography because this really happened to him and he has written it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this book, James Herriot is at war in England. He is just like any of the other soldiers, doing pushups and working all day. When he has days off he likes to do his first career. This is as a veterinarian. He lives in Yorkshire, England and he goes to farms and people’s houses any time he can, just to help their animals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It all starts with him at war, nothing real scary, just attending his regular duties. He seems to be very worried about his teeth because he is terrified of dentists. So he keeps his teeth in â€Å"tip top† condition. The Army was very strict about hygiene. Then he goes on about how he likes gentle dentists. In the beginning of this exceedingly interesting book he starts to talk about women. He says that he likes women better than men, and I agree, because at this time in the English Army there where more men than women. The men would not stop cussing and yelling and acting like slobs. He missed the comfort of women.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  James Herriot became a veterinarian because of his love for all the animals on this earth. He loves all animals and he knows how much an animal such as one out of twelve cows is worth to a farmer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An incident that I found interesting in the book was when he went to a Gray Hound race. He was the substitute vet. He was given the orders to take out any dog that did not look fit to run.

Essay on Common Threads in Yellow Wallpaper and Story of an Hour

Common Threads in The Yellow Wallpaper and The Story of an Hour      Ã‚  Ã‚   In her article "Why I Wrote 'The Yellow Wallpaper,'" as it appeared in The Forerunner (1913), Charlotte Perkins Gilman candidly reveals her personal story of mental illness and her subsequent journey to wellness after she rejected the "expert" advice of her physician. She retells the story, with some embellishments, in her short story "The Yellow Wallpaper." Her own nervous breakdown and prescribed "rest cure," popular at the time, brought her close to "utter mental ruin." With some help from a friend, and using what resources were left to her, she began to write again, intending to use this story as a means of saving others from being driven crazy. "The Yellow Wallpaper" was published in May 1892, amid a flurry of rejections and protestations. Nevertheless, her story has been told, and I think there are many women who can relate to what she has experienced, to varying degrees.    Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, in "A Feminist Reading of Gilman's 'The Yellow Wallpaper'" (818), identify the specialist as S. Weir Mitchell, a famous "nerve specialist" at that time. Gilman was forbidden to write until she was well, which, of course, was worse for her than her postpartum depression. The comparison in the story of "rings and things" in the nursery parallel feelings of being "locked away from creativity," and the gate at the top of the stairs in her upper story bedroom may be symbolic of her imprisonment.    In her short story, the enforced confinement prescribed by her physician husband brought her to a realization that she was imprisoned not only physically, but also in her mind and in her will. Ultimately he would not dominate her, and she ref... ... of dramatic irony. No one but the reader knew what heights Louise soared to and what depths of despair she plummeted to. That this story made such a big impact on me in only two pages shows how great a writer Kate Chopin really is. Works Cited and Consulted Bender, Bert.   Short Story Criticism.   Vol. 8.   Ed. Thomas Votteler.   Detroit:   Gale Research Inc., 1991. 64-65. Chopin, Kate.   â€Å"The Story of an Hour.†Ã‚   Literature:   Reading, Reacting, Writing. 3rd Ed.   Ed.   Laurie Kirszner and Stephen Mandell.   Fort Worth:   Harcourt Brace, 1997. 70-72. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins.   â€Å"The Yellow Wall-paper.†Ã‚   Literature: Reading, Reacting,Writing.   3rd Ed.   Ed. Laurie Kirszner and Stephen Mandell.   Fort Worth:   Harcourt Brace, 1997. 160-172. Shumaker, Conrad.   Short Story Criticism.   Vol. 13.   Ed.   David Segal.   Detroit:   Gale Research Inc., 1993.   164-170

Australia :: essays research papers

Australia Australia is the world's smallest continent and sixth-largest country. With proportionately more desert land than any other continent, Australia has a low population density. Lying completely in the Southern Hemisphere, Australia is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the west and south and by the Pacific Ocean on the east. These oceans merge on the north in the Arafura Sea between Australia and Indonesia and New Guinea, and on the south in the Bass Strait. The coastline length, estimated at 19,200 km (12,000 mi), is remarkably short for so large an area, a result of the relative lack of indentation. Major inlets other than the Gulf of CARPENTARIA and the GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT are few. A self-governing member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Australia celebrated its bicentennial in 1988z. It is a federation of five mainland states (NEW SOUTH WALES, QUEENSLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, VICTORIA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA) and one island state (TASMANIA), as well as two territories (AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY, NORTHERN TERRITORY). The country's name derives from the Latin terra australis incognita, meaning "unknown southern land," which resulted from a confusion between Australia and Antarctica on early world maps. In many ways Australia is unusual among continents. It lacks major relief features and has a high proportion of dry land. The continent's isolation from other landmasses accounts for its unique varieties of vegetation and animal life, and for the existence of a Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) culture among the Aborigines. Except for Antarctica, Australia was probably the last continent to be inhabited by humans and the last to be explored and settled by Europeans. It is the only continent comprising a single nation-state. Dutch explorers first sighted Australia in the early 17th century. Capt. James COOK explored the east coast in 1770 and claimed the land for Great Britain. In 1778 the first settlement (SYDNEY) was founded at an excellent harbor on the

Lifelong Learning Essay

It is important for educators to understand special education and how the diagnosis of developmental disabilities, early intervention, educational programs, services for young learners, transitional programs, strengths and weaknesses in assessments and interventions affects their students and classroom environment, while also being able to offer suggestions for student improvement and expected performance. People learn for a lifetime so special education needs to start as early as possible for all children that need it and continue on through their high school years. The learning process is not just about academic learning for special education students, but is also about learning social, emotional, and self-care skills. There is much to learn and it all begins with diagnosis. Diagnosis of Developmental Disabilities Developmental monitoring occurs from the time a child is born through well-child visits with a health professional. There are five areas of development that can be affected and these are what health professional are monitoring: â€Å"cognitive development, physical development (including vision and hearing), communication development, social or emotional development, and adaptive development (Overview of Early Intervention, 2012)†. If any problems are noticed during monitoring, then the child is further assessed through developmental screening. Screening allows health professionals to monitor a child’s progress more closely and determine how their development relates to the general population of children at the same developmental stages. The hope with all well-child visits to prove a child is in perfect physical, mental, and emotional health and if they are not, then the process helps parents and health professional to intervene early. Early Intervention â€Å"Early intervention is a system of services that helps babies and toddlers with developmental delays or disabilities (Overview of Early Intervention, 2012)†, which has been proven to significantly improve a child’s chances of success in all developmental areas. For children with developmental delay of disabilities, early intervention can help them develop their physical, cognitive, communication, social, and self-care skills extensively. There are many services that can help develop these skills, such as speech therapies, assistive devices, physical therapies, and many more. Once children reach school age, they may then be placed in special education programs within their selected school system where they will continue the learning process. Educational Programs Once children enter the educational system, IDEA requires schools to provide the necessary tools and support staff to ensure that each student can achieve a free education. This may require something as simple as an assistive device, such as an iPad or computer to use to communicate, or could require more direct assistance, such as an aid to provide one-on-one assistance. Parents, teachers, and other support staff work together to create an IEP for each student. The IEP lays out the plan for each individual student and also includes what that students areas of developmental delay or disability are so schools can appropriately assist the student. Then once the IEP is established, it can then be decided what educational program that the student should be involved in. There are a few different educational programs: 1) strictly special education, which does not include any general education classes, 2) semi-special education, which includes a combination of general and special education classes, and 3) all general education classes, which is intended for those students that require special education, but do not necessarily need to be a part of a special education classroom. Strictly special education situations would be for students that are not capable of actively participating in a general classroom setting. Semi-special education programs are for students that are able to actively participate in a general education classroom, but may only need extra help in certain areas. One example could be in Math and Science, where a student  significantly struggles, but they achieve well in other areas such as Related Arts classes. Some students only need a little help and do well in a general education classroom, but still need to be involved in the special education program in certain facets in order to follow an IEP to ensure their needs are being met and that they are achieving well in school. Services for Young Exceptional Learners Another group of children, often included in the special education program, are those that are gifted, or considered exceptional learners. Although gifted children are often very intelligent, they can struggle with other areas that can affect their education and social development. These students should be offered services to help them reach their true potential. Quite often, gifted students just need focus, which can be achieved through services that help them learn how to develop their skills, interests, and intellectual capacities. (Beckley, 1998) Nurturing students with positive reinforcements, while provided adequate challenge in their stronger areas, can help ensure their ultimate success. It is important to not just throw gifted students into special education because their skills are not seen, but rather to work at understanding the student so that their intellect can blossom and their weaknesses improved or managed. Transitional Programs Children continue through the education program until they complete high school. This can be up through age 22 for some students. At age 16, or before then for some students, IDEA mandates that students begin an Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) as part of their IEP. â€Å"Transition services are intended to prepare students to move from the world of school to the world of adulthood (Transition to Adulthood, 2010).† Just like the IEP, transition service for students must be coordinated between parents, teachers, support staff, and at this age also includes the student. Transition is intended to help students not only achieve academic goals, but also to aid in developing a student’s self-care and independent living skills. In addition, it also aids in determining their interests so that they can interact in their community, begin college or other post high school education, or obtain employment. If transition is successful, then students should be able to adequately a dapt to their new circumstances and  environment after completing high school. Assessments Assessments and interventions can be extremely beneficial to the well-being of a child with developmental delays or disabilities. Assessments by parents, health care professionals, and educators help to identify potential delays or disabilities early so that the child can receive services to help them manage or overcome them. Intervention programs provide the resources necessary for children to receive the services they are entitled to. Unfortunately, assessments and intervention are only as good as the support around the student. Parents must take their child to well-child checks for health professional to be able to identify an issue. Once an issue is determined, intervention can begin and involves parents, educators, healthcare professionals, and other support personnel. It is important for all parties in the support staff to work together and keep in communication about the needs of the child. The support system surrounding a special needs child can be their strongest resource or their weakness. It is up to parents to ensure that their child is getting the best treatments and services available to meet their needs and ensure their child’s success. Improvement Suggestions Improvements in assessment and intervention begins with parents. Parents need to be thoroughly educated on the needs of their child. Knowledge is power and the more the parents have, then the more they will be equipped to work with the child’s other support personnel. Doctors and teachers needs to help parents understand the needs of their child and how all the various programs and processes can help their child succeed. Improvement stems primarily around a cohesive unit of well-educated or well informed support group surrounding the child. Expected Outcomes As parents, students, educators, and health professionals come together to form a cohesive support group, involving great communication, then the child can benefit by overcoming or improving their delay or disability. As more is learned about developmental disabilities, the brighter the future looks for all those that are challenged by such disabilities. Early intervention and appropriate support gives special needs children the chance to reach their dreams. References Beckley, D. (1998). Gifted and Learning Disabled: Twice Exceptional Students. Retrieved from Neag Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development: http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/nrcgt/newsletter/spring98/sprng984.html Overview of Early Intervention. (2012, December). Retrieved from National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities: http://nichcy.org/babies/overview#what Transition to Adulthood. (2010, September). Retrieved from National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities: http://nichcy.org/schoolage/transitionadult

Reforming, Transforming and Conforming Essay

In this essay I will discuss the comparisons and differences of the three models of theory and learning as identified by MacNaughton, Conforming, Reforming and Transforming (MacNaughton, 2003). This essay will look at how these theories are explained and can be applied individually or together within the learning pedagogy. My discussion will be of a reflective nature and include how I have understood these three models in relation to the early childhood learning environment and how I may relate them to my own developing education philosophy. Each theory will be discussed with a focus on one or two particular theorist. For Conforming I will look at theorists from both the nature and nurture perspective, Gesell and Skinner. The Reforming component of the paper will reflect on constructivist theorist Vygotsky and Psychodynamic theorist Erikson. Conforming I have defined the conforming model of learning as children learning in a traditionally accepted way where they will progress through stages of development according to either their biology or their environment. The methods of the educator are not questioned by the children who are being instructed as passive learners on their journey through childhood to become adults who fit in comfortable to the mould that society expect. Another definition is â€Å"complying with the existing practices, rules, traditions and understandings† (MacNaughton, 2003, p. 121) There are two main developmental theories associated with the conforming model, they are Maturationism (Nature) and Behaviourism (Environment). Conforming theorists have investigated the concept of children learning due to their genetic makeup or their environment. A theorist who conferred with the nature debate was Arnold Gesell (1880-1961) who viewed the child’s development from a biological perspective as pre-programmed according to how Mother Nature has determined after many years of evolution. Development will unfold in line with the child’s maturation and learning will be best achieved with little interference from adults. I like what Thelen, Adolph and Karen had to say regarding Gesell’s theory in relation to learning, â€Å"Society and the family must provide children with an environment that allows the inherent growth potential of each child to be fully and optimally realized. The whole purpose of developmental norms was to identify the individual status of each child so as to guide children more suitably to optimal growth. The environment must be precisely tailored to fit the child’s capabilities† (Thelen & Adolph, 1992, p. 368). What I have taken from the nature debate is that it is a theory that still cares very much for how children are educated. It is motivated by giving children enough support within their environment that is appropriate for the child’s current capabilities. They see a child will develop in a sequence of stages that will not be impacted by their environment. I see this approach becoming a stronger focus in education today through Naplan testing and the movement in Australia towards a National curriculum. What scope does this give a teacher to educate children outside this conformist approach? My daughters teacher made a comment to me recently about what a busy term they have had and said they really need to get down to business so they have done something concrete as it’s nearly report writing time. Upon reflection I was very happy with what my child had done this term, with excursions to meet other students at bigger schools to experience and participate in dramatic play, a wonderful opportunity to visit a shelter for abused animals, speak with one of the traditional land owners where her school was built, participate in a cross country running event with another smaller school providing further social experiences with new people. Yet all these wonderful experiences do not allow her teacher to tick all the boxes of required learning as it seems she is required to do. I wonder what Gesell would think of where education has come today. I find a discrepancy in what Gesell suggested that all children will develop differently depending on their maturation which will in turn impact our culture in different ways, and that culture will need to adapt to these variants in children’s development (MacNaughton, 2003). Yet so many years latter it doesn’t seem like that has happened at all. It seems to me that our culture (predominantly politically as far as I’m concerned) is demanding through Naplan testing that all students should be measurable at the same age according to their academic performance. In contrast to Maturation theory, a Behaviourists’ approach views the child’s environment as imperative and directly related to their development – which also occurs in stages. Behaviourists believe that children are born as a blank slate, meaning their mind has no inherent structure and can be filled by their society (or environment). Learning commences from birth onwards, for example from your parents, television, friends and many other direct environmental influences. All behaviour is observable and measurable and is universal. In stark contrast to a Psychodynamic view, Behaviourist believes the mind is not the key to acquiring knowledge; their external environment in which they live is (Faryadi, 2007). With this understanding it becomes clear why curriculum goal setting under a Behaviourist conforming profile is recommended to occur at the commencement of planning, prior to the educator even meeting the children (MacNaughton, 2003). There is no need for individualised programming based on what knowledge the children may be bringing along with them. They will learn according to what is provided under the direction of the teacher. There have been a number of theorists that have had an influence on this approach, some that have created a learning environment for animals in their study such as Pavlov (1849 – 1936) and Skinner (1904 – 1990). Pavlov contributes to the behaviourist approach with his theory on classical conditioning and BF Skinner with operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is when people learn by association, and operant conditioning is when we learn to behave in a certain way because of either positive or negative reinforcement (McDevitt, 2002). Again the psychodynamic approach would disagree with the behaviourists approach as it does not take into account the unconscious mind and just focuses on external observable behaviour. Now that I have a firmer understanding of both Maturationism and Behaviourism I can imagine these philosophies used in an early childhood environment. In fact I feel quite sure the conforming profile was very dominant in my own Pre-school and Primary school years. I remember being taught by rote and the feelings of inadequacies? pressure and assault on my self esteem. These feelings were all generated when it was time for tables and I thought, what if I get it wrong, please let it be a sum I know. It took all my efforts to stop myself from crying just because I had to stand up in front of the class, I had no energy left to remember my tables. Is there an easier way to for children to learn their tables? I believe there is a place for rote learning and tables is one of them. However, the culture of the setting could adopt pedagogies that are going to reform the learning from a teacher directed one way dialogue to two way with interaction on a more personal level with the learner. My experience of rote learning was always indoors with tables and chairs set up in pairs. The pairs were the same for the term (of course unless you were a ‘naughty’ child and would then be moved to the front row directly in front of the teachers desk). I wonder would my rote learning have been enhanced if I had more mental and physical control of my situation. I believe the answer is yes. Some temperaments may flourish in that environment, but as a child, I was not one of them. However, put me in a small group and enable peer support I truly think my learning experience would have been different. As cited by MacNaughton Australia is one of many ‘multicultural, multiethnic and multifaith societies’ (MacNaughton, 2003, p. 145) It is concerning to me that a Eurocentric approach to learning could still be used in some schools, thereby supporting the majority at the expense of marginalising the minority. As my own teaching philosophy is emerging I think there are parts of the conforming model that I would implement. I have an interest in Skinners operant conditioning but haven’t quite thought out how I could apply it. I do have some issues with this on what is equitable for all children. An example of this would be using rewards such as extra computer time for an anxious child who had difficulty sitting through a literacy block. If the child is able to do this he / she will be rewarded. What will the children who continuously try very hard to sit through every learning block be rewarded with? What is equitable for these children? That is my main dilemma, yet I will continue to ponder point as I sense it is something I could learn more about. I am hoping I will see some good example of this theory in use at my upcoming professional experience. Reforming A reforming model of learning includes theories such as Constructivism, Psychodynamic and Neuroscience. For the purpose of this reflective paper I will concentrate on Constructivism and Psychodynamics using theorists Vygotsky and Erikson. The initial differences I see with this model of learning from a Conforming model are how they view the learner as an active participant as opposed to a passive one. To understand it in my own mind I define a reforming learner as someone who will put what they are learning with previous information to form their own meaning. MacNaughton defines Reforming as â€Å"improving something through changing it† (MacNaughton, 2003, p. 40) Vygotsky was a Constructionist who saw the learning environment as essential to learning as did the Behaviourist, however Vygotsky saw the environment as the tool for learning through sociocultural experiences. Interpersonal communication experienced through social interaction necessitated the child’s thinking and behaving (Berk, 2006). Vygotsky like Gesell saw development as stage based, yet the stages may vary depending on the social environment the child is exposed to. A child’s social interactions provide them with the learning needed to further develop language and stimulate their transition through stages of cognitive development for thought and behaviour. What appeals to me about Vygotsys theory is that it depends on children learning from more experienced members of their community (such as teachers or other students) through scaffolding (Berk, 2006). What does it imply for those children who are not given access to a high degree of social experiences and interactions? Are the destined for a future with poor language / communication skills? If Vygotsky viewed language development as the foundation for cognitive development does this make them less intelligent or give the appearance of low intelligence? Again I must raise my earlier point about my childhood fear of standing in front of the class during rote learning. If the principles of reforming and conforming learning profiles had been amalgamated I think a more positive outcome would have resulted for me. It comes quiet naturally for me to adopt a Vygotsky approach when working with young children so will certainly be incorporating it into my philosophy. I like that children can help children learn and that it has a strong focus on the interactions of play. Again we see a stage based theory this time from Erikson. Erikson formulated eight stages that span from birth to late adulthood. In each stage, Erikson described what made the specified ages so important, for example: the first stage is called Trust vs. Mistrust (from birth – 1 year) Second stage is Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years) Stage three is Initiative vs. Guilt (from 3-6 years old) (McDevitt, 2002). I feel quite comfortable with Erikson (yet not so with his earlier counterpart Freud) and Skinner. Unlike Freud, Erikson placed some emphasise on societies role in the development of an individual’s personality (MacNaughton, 2003). Erikson also acknowledges the individuals cultural influence will directly impact development. For example what occurs in northwest American Indian tribes will affect the development of their children differently to other cultures (Berk L. 2008) I can relate this theory to my own personal beliefs regarding my own childhood and upbringing and that which I am trying to foster for my children. As an individual and mother I have strong opinions regarding the value and importance of my family, community and environment and how they directly impact each other and my children’s developing personalities and how they feel about themselves. A critical reflection of myself upon the completion of this subject sees me sitting within a reforming model of learning. My personal values as mentioned above influence how I relate to Eriksons psychodynamic view as I think he is a theorist who really fosters questions like, who am I, and what is my place in society? Vygotsky supports my feelings of how I can support cognitive development through children’s environment and social world. Yet, I still don’t think these theories complete my philosophy. My life is lived through a complex network of structures so therefore I see development from an ecological systems perspective (Bronfenbrenner 1917 – 2005) as well, so will affiliate it to my philosophy too. Another theorist that I think fits under the reforming model is Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development and Education. I know as an educator I will be concerned with the issue of moral development and will pursue further knowledge to assist my understanding. What I have initially taken from Kohlberg is that â€Å"This teaching practice is based on the assumption that there are no single, correct answers to ethical dilemmas, but that there is value in holding clear views and acting accordingly. In addition, there is a value of toleration of divergent views. It follows, then, that the teacher’s role is one of discussion moderator, with the goal of teaching merely that people hold different values; the teacher does attempt to present her views as the â€Å"right† views† ( (Nucci, 2008, p. http://tigger. uic. edu/~lnucci/MoralEd/overview. html) Transforming My understanding of the Transforming model of learning would be defined as a theory that advocates for children’s rights for the future through challenging traditional practice. As a transforming educator you would be prepared to take risks and endeavour to shatter opposing thoughts that are not equitable to their cause. I imagine being a transforming educator would require a tremendous amount of physical and emotional energy, and resilience. A more analytical definition might refer to the model as interested in looking at the knowledge we have to ascertain if it is biased and critically questioning and assessing whose interest are being served. This may lead to changes in the fundamental delivery of education which results in better social justice for a specified society (MacNaughton, 2003). The Transforming model is an umbrella term that incorporates three different theories, they are; Social Constructionists and Postmodernists, Feminism (including Feminists Poststructuralists), Critical race theorists and Postcolonialists (MacNaughton, 2003). For this essay I will focus on Social Construcitionists who are concerned with how behaviourist or structuralits theorist conduct their research and how it directly impacts educators. They find criticism in the fact that these theories are dominated by male middle class men, due to the implications for marginalisation of certain aspects of society, for example women, cultural perspectives such as eastern philosophies or indigenous stories (Fenton, 2011). Of all the models looked at during my research and study in this subject I felt most confronted by Transforming. I think that’s largely because I am not very good at thinking outside the square, yet when I try to get my head around this model I am forced to look beyond my own conservative and safe nature. As a student and a future educator I see myself as a person of compassion who doesn’t like to see social injustice or a children being marginalised, so feel like I should have been able to connect more with this model. However, with this in mind I did feel like I could relate more to Social Construcitionists theory due to their philosophy of power with not power over, which is unique to the other theories I have discussed so far. The implications of this for me as a future teacher are that I must be prepared to view myself, and show by example that I am still a learner and prepared to change as I acquire new knowledge. As a mother there have been times when I have seen children treated unfairly by an adult (and some teachers) who holds the balance of power (and I’m sure have done so myself with my own children). I have questioned why the adult feels they don’t have to apologise to the child for this action and conclude that it would be seen as disempowering themselves. This attitude could be explained as one where the child is viewed as â€Å"becoming adult† (MacNaughton, 2003, p. 5) and therefore the adults role is one of privilege and the child’s is oppressed. Next time I experience this I wonder will I be courageous enough to rock the boat? As a learner teacher who is still trying to establish what my philosophy will be I feel drawn to the Social Construcitionists theory as it is the first theory that I feel has really addressed the issue of children’s development having a direct correlation to and is in fact all bound together with culture and actual present time, and is therefore never static, or all learnt. A quote from Burman explains this as â€Å"how children develop differs in different places and in different historical times because how we see development is bound by where we are (our culture) and by our time† (MacNaughton, 2003, p. 71). As I have already stated this was a very difficult theory for me to absorb. After spending some time researching and questioning my own beliefs and values I feel confident I have the ability to integrate some of what I have learnt into practice as a teacher (yet I don’t see myself as a Social Construcitionists trail blaser). Whilst I have discussed what I like about this theory I also concur with MacNaughton (2008) when she raises equity regarding the children who are not able to function in a Social Construcitionists. Is the shy reserved child, whose parents traditional principles are being indoctrinated at home and within their ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner 1917 – 2005) going to have a voice. Previous study has taught me about the various aspect of children’s natural temperament which leads me to wonder about the â€Å"slow to warm up child† (Berk L. , 2008, p. 260) will manage this classroom. In effect there would be equity issues for these children who are not able to function when put in a situation of co-learner with their teacher and peers. I think throughout my discussion I have expressed what has challenged me in gaining an understanding of this subject and the 3 models we have covered. To conclude I think I would simply add that I have expanded my original knowledge on the theorist discussed through the process of looking at them more critically and reflect on how I may apply them as a teacher. I have identified my personal growth in understanding ethical issues of theory. This was something I had not done previously, most likely due to the conforming method of learning I have experienced. I am a product of being taught the teacher is always right and it is not my role to question. That was then this is now.