Episodic Memory: Definition and Theories

Episodic Memory: Definition and Theories FRITZ Claudia KRENN Nora SCHALLEHN Anna Episodic memory is defined as a memory for personal unique past experience. Experimental approaches with diverse species were done in order to test for the â€Å"what where and when† of some unique recent event. These experiments provide convergent evidence that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals, which is the main focus of this essay. The memory in general is divided into two parts – procedural and declarative memory. Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory. Episodic memory is the latest kind of memory to develop and the first to degenerate with age. When it was first discussed by Tulving in 1972 he proposed a distinction between episodic and semantic memory, knowing versus remembering. Episodic memory was defined primarily as a memory for personal unique past experience that is what happened, where and when, also known as the WWW theory. According to Tulving â€Å"episodic memory receives and stores information about temporally dated episodes or events, and temporal-spatial relations among these events.† In contrast, semantic memory is the knowledge of general facts, a structured record of details, concepts and skills that we have acquired. It is used as an aid in placing episodic events in time. Semantic information is derived from accumulated episodic memory. Episod ic memory can be thought as a map that ties together items in semantic memory. For example, memory for the experience of dinner at Luigi’s Restaurant last Saturday night is episodic whereas knowledge about what was involved in having dinner at a restaurant in general is semantic. Furthermore supported by evidence that some people with hippocampal damage have semantic but not episodic memory, the definition of episodic memory evolved to emphasize its conscious component, a feeling of re-experiencing the remembered event which is also known as autonoetic consciousness (Tulving 2002). It enables an individual to be aware of the self in a subjective time. It is further claimed to be part of a uniquely human faculty of â€Å"mental time travel,† the ability to mentally project oneself into the future as well as into the past. How does mental time travel the reconstruction of past events work? Imagine the last presentation you gave? Do you remember the audience’s rea ction? You might have snapshots of what the scene looked like. But this imagery does not tend to unfold in an orderly fashion from start to end. Extensive research on episodic memory clearly shows that we do not simply press the rewind button – we actively reconstruct past events from the gist or from visual snapshots, but draw heavily on our general semantic knowledge. We tend to reconstruct in ways that help justify our current attitudes. Let us get back to Tulving’s proposal. Do we agree on the aspect that humans are alone in their ability to recall about the past and imagine the future? Some argue that language is the key difference between humans and animals and that episodic memory can only emerge in an organism that possesses language. However, there have been efforts to demonstrate episodic memory in animals. In one attempt pigeons were taught a language in order to respond to an unexpected question. Furthermore, a fundamental question in comparative cognition is whether animals remember unique personal past experiences. It has long been argued that memories for specific events, known as episodic memory, are unique to humans. We know that animals from dolphins to monkeys can learn from single events. But do they revisit the events that shaped their past? Innovative work by Clayton and Dickson has produced perhaps the strongest case yet for the WWW memory in animals. The animals’ memory is referred to as episodic-like because it satisfies the original definition of episodic memory for what, where and when but without any evidence of autonoetic consciousness. Clayton and Dickinson (1998) where the first ones who tried to demonstrate the discrimination of WWW in scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens). The birds got to cache perishable peanuts on one side of a storage tray and non-perishable wax worms on the other side. Two caching phases were separated by 120 hours. The birds either cached peanuts followed by worms or the other way round. After four hours they were allowed to recover the stored items. Before the actual test phase, one group of the birds learned that worms decay over time, thus after the four hours gap they directed their first inspection to the worm side. After the 124 hours gap the worms had already perished and the birds turned to the peanut side first. To validate that the preference for the peanuts on the longer trial was not because the scrub jays simply forgot where the worms were, the group was compared to a second group. This group learned that the worms never decay as they where removed immediately after caching and replaced by fresh ones. As a result all birds of this group inspected the worm side of the tray in both the short and the long trial first. In conclusion the switch from worm side to peanut side by birds in the first group can only be explained by recalling what items were cached, where they were stored and when they were cached, which is evidence for episodic-like memory. Not only scrub jays but also rats were used for experiments for testing the â€Å"WWW†-theory. This was done by Babb and Crystal (2005), using the circadian rhythm. Critics stated however, that this could not be seen as a proof for â€Å"when† since the rats’ biological rhythm is responsible for the â€Å"when†. As a consequence Babb and Crystal (2006) modified the experiment, controlling for the time of day. The rats however could still accomplish the trials. It is therefore called episodic-like memory. In an experiment by Roberts et al. (2008), rats were tested if their memory is based on when or how long ago a specific event occurred. The results clearly displayed that rats use elapsed time as a cue for when an event happened. In terms of the definition of episodic-like memory the conditions for â€Å"what-where-when† were fulfilled in these types of experiments. However in terms of the definition of episodic memory the evidence of autonoetic con sciousness is missing. Subsequently one can argue that those experiments had long training phases and the animals learned therefore rules on how to behave in certain situations. This could be declared as semantic memory. A different approach to test episodic-like memory in animals was done by Zentall et al. (2001). In this study, the aim was to avoid the possibility for the tested animals to solve the task because of a lot of experiences with the â€Å"rules† of the task and thus form semantic memory. This was done by asking them nonverbally unexpected questions. Therefore the eight tested pigeons were forced to travel back in their minds. To test the pigeons, Zentall et al. used a study design with multiple phases. At first, the pigeons had a language training where they learned to respond to the question â€Å"did you just peck?† They were shown one of two different symbols. At the symbol with vertical lines they would peck and at the one with horizontal lines they would refrain from pecking. The demonstrated symbol was followed by a red and a green light. After pecking the choice of the red light was reinforced. After refraining from pecking the choice of the green light was reinforc ed. Now the red light can be seen as the answer â€Å"yes† and the green light as the answer â€Å"no† to the question â€Å"Did you just peck?† In the next phase they learned to peck at one of a new pair of symbols without being asked about what they had just done. However in the test phase they were confronted for the first time with the red and green comparisons after the interaction with a new symbol. They were also tested with a symbol where they would spontaneously peck at and the absence of a symbol, so that they would not peck. And again they were asked whether they had just pecked. In both cases they chose the right answer in about seventy percent of the first four test trials, which is above chance. This study outcome speaks in favor of episodic-like memory in pigeons. Zentall et al. (2001) could demonstrate, that the pigeons were able to retrieve knowledge of recent experiences on unexpected request. Additionally, further research displayed, that the pigeons did not solve the task through proprioceptive cues (Singer and Zentall 2007, as cited in Crystal). However the pigeons had to remember only their actions for a few seconds, while humans are able to remember episodes for a long time or even a lifetime. So studies on what-where-when memory with integration of unexpected questions could lead to stronger evidence (Crystal 2010). Experiments testing for episodic-like memory in animals were moreover done with Dolphins. Mercado et al. (1998, as cited by Zentall et al.) demonstrated that these animals were capable to remember their actions by asking them to perform a certain behavior they had done most recently or a performance they had not recently done. Studies with pigeons as well as with dolphins indicate therefore that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals. Since the tests were done with diverse species, it might be that this form of memory represents a general capacity in animals. All the experimental approaches discussed in our presentation involve testing for the what where and when of some unique recent event. As discussed, these experiments provide convergent evidence that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals. This kind of memory is now known as â€Å"episodic like† memory rather than episodic memory because it satisfies the original definition of episodic memory defined by Tulving as a memory for what where and when of a unique experience but without any evidence of autonoetic consciousness. Additionally, the series of studies raised doubt about the claim, mental time travel being unique to humans. Therefore the variety of approaches that have developed might be taken as a welcome evidence of a search for convergent data but they also reflect the fact that no one approach to date has captured all aspects of human episodic memory in another species. Knowing now all the definitions and experimental approaches one could come up with t he question â€Å"why is it important to have the ability of episodic memory?† The answer is that there is no selective advantage to reconstruct the past per se, unless it matters for the present or future. It is proposed that episodic reconstruction is just an adaptive design feature of the future planning system such as building a nest. References Babb, S. J., and J. D. Crystal. 2005. Discrimination of what, when and where: Implications for episodic-like memory in rats. Learning Motivation 36: 177-189. Babb, S. J., and J. D. Crystal. 2006. Discrimination of what, when, and where is not based on time of day. Learning Behaviour 34(2): 124-130. Clayton, N. S., and A. Dickinson. 1998. Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature 395: 272-274. Cognition, Evolution and Behavior (pp. 249-256) Crystal, J.D. (2010). Episodic-like memory in animals. Behavioural Brain Research, 215 (2), 235–243. Mercado E. et al. (1998). Memory for recent actions in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Repetition of arbitrary behaviors using an abstract rule. Animal Learning Behavior, 26, 210-218. (cited in Zentall, T.R. et al. (2001). Roberts, W. A., M. C. Feeney, K. MacPherson, M. Petter, N. McMillan, and E. Musolino. 2008. Episodic-like memory in rats: Is it based on when or how long ago?. Science 320: 113-115 Suddendorf T. and Busby J. Mental time travel in animals? Early Cognitive Development Unit, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane Singer, R.A. and Zentall, T.R. (2007). Pigeons learn to answer the question ‘where did you just peck?’ and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked. Learning Behavior, 35, 184–189. (cited in Crystal, J.D. (2010) Tulving, E. 1972. Episodic and semantic memory. In Organization of memory, ed. Tulving, E., and W. Donaldson. New York: Academic Press. Zentall, T.R. et al. (2001). Episodic-like memory in pigeons. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 8 (4), 685-690.

Goffman Essay -- Book Review, Social Exchange

Goffman â€Å"All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players: They have their exits and their entrances; and one man in his time plays many parts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Student of sociology, believe Erving Goffman could easily claimed to have made that statement just as Shakespeare is given due. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life details dramaturgy or as Goffman himself relates, â€Å"The Perspective employed in this report is that of the theatrical performance†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Preface, p. xi). Using theater metaphors Goffman wanted to analyze frame by frame the organization of the social experience. He created a framework, a common sociological language, to conceptualize social interactions and thus authored influential work producing deeper intellectual inquiry, academic discussion, and social science development. Through critical review, Goffman’s book reveal its core concept plus consider how his influential paradigm, the dramaturgical perspective maybe placed i n the terms of sociological discussions within the discipline. The book surveys a host of social exchanges whereby the author demonstrates that we in our everyday lives participate in performances of ourselves in ways similar to actors depicting characters. Essentially to Dr. Goffman, it is acting -the presentation of oneself - whether recognized as such by individuals involved or not He begins quoting George Santayana in an exploration of mask. In chapter one, entitled â€Å"Performances,† the theatrical lens starts the analysis. He relays sociologist, Robert Ezra Park’s concept, â€Å"We come into the world as individuals, achieve character, and become persons† (p.20). These examples and all other pertinent information supporting his thesis are registered through theater. Previewing t... ...sic way has been the way of the intellectual craftsman.† This describes Goffman as a serious sociologist. He uses the dimensions of stagecraft to develop intellectual craftsmanship that his academic colleague calls upon. The dramaturgical perspective of Erving Goffman, Ph.D., has been examined in this report through a survey of his book’s assertions. The lineage of sociology prior to his publishing his social science conceptual study was detailed and connected to his stated views of micro-sociology. The sociological discussion within the discipline based upon his book concluded this critical review. This entire survey has caused me to appreciate Goffman’s work as a student of sociology because he has shown me intellectual tools to make abstractions concrete so that I may operate with on a cognitive level to comprehend group dynamics in a scientific way.

The Influence of Ganster Films such as New Jack City and Menace to Society

Warshow began the essay saying â€Å"America is committed to a cheerful view of life†. Warshow is referring particularly to the movies but also to comic books and pulp fiction . Those that perpetuate the notion of what constitutes the gangster himself but also his environment, motivation and modus operandi. The intolerable dilemma is that failure is a kind of death and success is evil and dangerous, are ultimately impossible. The effect of the gangster film is to embody this dilemma in the person of the gangster and resolve it by â€Å"his death, not ours, we are safe for the moment and can acquiesce in our failure, we can choose to fail. This essay makes me think that most gangster movies can help and also hurt the viewer. It all depends on the state of mind of the individual. Watching movie such as â€Å"New Jack City† and â€Å"Menace to Society† made people in my community act out, not in a fearful way but in a more gangster way. More crimes took place after young viewers watched these types of films; maybe in the suburbs people felt safe but not in our neighborhood. Movies such as these were made to show people the rise and fall of a gangster. However it depends on the individual that watches these types of films and what they gather from it. Take for instance, if a person has never been to the projects and had seen this type of activity take place; they may watch one of these films and not get Influenced by it . On the other hand, people who live in the projects that see drug dealers and so called gangsters, begin to glorify this kind of lifestyle because this is what they see on a day to day basis. Warshows’ intolerable dilemmas sometimes resolve in our death. Some people can see a film and know in the end that the gangster will end up dead or on a bus to prison but for some reason that never scares them from trying to get the same fame that the gangster has in the film. Take for example, the film â€Å"New Jack City â€Å"staring Wesley Snipes as the notorious Neno Brown; it shows two sides of a gangster. Neno kills people over drugs and territory but the film also shows him feeding the poor on Thanksgiving and handing money out to children and preachers. Neno starts out as an average street hustler with dreams of one day being a drug kingpin. His dream seems to be reachable when his brother introduces him to the new drug crack cocaine. Neno then builds a street team to help run his empire. He operates his crack business the same as any other business like Wal-Mart. In a way Neno was like a ghetto Robinhood. He robs the rich and sells dope to the poor. This is what makes this essay one sided. People living in the ghetto are simply products of their environment. They are simply forced into this life that is fictional to others. A gangster’s motivation is always something he feels like he has first and before anyone else. It may be a new car, jewelry or a luxury home. Most movies about a fictional gangster are always stemmed from a real person that has already failed as a gangster, either dead or in prison. Most of the gangster movies we watch today are real life stories. Filmmakers just put a twist on the story and change the names around. People from the lower class watch these movies and often blur out the bad ending rather than being in fear of the same ending happening to them. Most gangster movies have a hero from both sides. The lower class people root for the villain while the middle and upper class root for the main detective that usually brings the gangster to his untimely demise. Most kids are fascinated with gangsters because of their lavish and glorious lifestyle that are portrayed by he media. Lower class children do not live next door to doctors or lawyers so they do not glorify their lifestyles . They can just turn on the television and see a gangster anytime they want and to some, glorifying a gangster is real and gives them something to believe in. When they see a gangster in the neighborhood, everyone is nice to him out of fear not respect but as a child, he will grow up thinking that type of lifestyle is o. k. because everyone will be too scared to tell him that this individual is scum and that he does not want to be like him when he grows up.

School Observation And Comparison With Japan - 777 Words

Thus far, we mainly looked three aspects of IWB by literature review, school observation and comparison with Japan. In the literature review, I mentioned the difference of pupils’ increased motivation one with the â€Å"novelty value of ICT† and other with the comprehensibility. In the observation, an example of the efficient innovation of IWB in classroom, supporting system and teacher training were described. And in comparison part, the problem of a technical (but a fundamental) issue that leads the low diffusion of IWB in Japan was explained. From all of these three aspects, I would like to make an action plan to identify how I should innovate the IWB to my classroom and to what I should pay attention. 5.1 First step: innovating IWB to the classroom This might be a quite realistic suggestion, but as the first step of innovating IWB to my own school, adopting what type of IWB should be carefully investigated. In a limited budget, it might be difficult to adopt wall-ceiling fixation type to all classrooms, but that does not mean that adopting movable-front projection type is the best way. As it was clarified in the comparison, movable-front projection type is very useful in the situation that requires the flexibility of IWB. This is for example in office or business setting, but not in educational setting which requires stable daily use of it with the limited teacher’s time capacity. Therefore, even though the budget is limited, by assigning priority for the adoptingShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Music For This Group Of Pupils814 Words   |  4 PagesMoreover, it is a naturalistic and qualitative study, which comprises of two sets of data, observation notes and interview questions. The participants were five teachers of students with autism in special primary schools in the area of Bristol, in the UK. 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