Analysis of various forms of Anarchism

Analysis of various forms of Anarchism Free Online Research Papers Anarchism. It’s a subject of intense interest, especially among people of more liberal standpoints. There are those of the persuasion that says that human beings can exist without some appearance of a central governing body. This ideology says that human beings can police themselves and are fully capable of living without prejudice towards any other living being. The anarchist belief in a cooperative society is a wonderful theory, putting much faith in human character. Unfortunately, with the current state of human reaction, I would have to strongly disagree with this confidence. First and foremost, it should be stated that anarchism is a very commonly used misnomer, generally attributed to someone who uses chaotic, and often times, destructive means to rebel against a chosen political standpoint, generally one which said person feels undoubtedly has been corrupted. They (that is to say, the anarchist) are often considered non-patriotic, standing against all forms of judiciary structure. Most think of anarchists as wanting nothing more then to cause the break down of human society, leading us to a proverbial â€Å"dark age,† where you have no claim over anything you cannot maintain with force. Still other’s think of them as rabble rousers, indulging in drugs, sex, alcohol, and a hedonistically unclean lifestyle, with no regard for safety. The truth is much less sinister. The word anarchy is derived from the Greek words â€Å"an,† meaning without, and â€Å"archos,† meaning leader, governance, or ruler ship. In essence, it does mean a break down of human society, but not to a state of absolute depravity, simply to a much more primitive, simplified state. The process of a removal of all governing bodies, either religiously, politically, or economically, is a definite cause of the anarchist movement, while the maintaining of ones self image is also an important aspect of many of the various types of anarchist progression. Anarchism, and what it means, is a highly debated topic, especially among the different architectures of anarchism. These organizations are all different and in each group there are many different views on what the true meaning is. Some of the more prominent of these configurations of thought include, but are not limited to; Anarcho-Collectivism, Anarcho-Communism, Anarcho-Syndicalism, and Individualist Anarchism. Anarcho-Collectivism, an early 19th century anarchist doctrine, supports the abolishment of the state and private ownership of the means of mass production, instead wishing to give ownership to the producers (those who actually create the product). Worker’s would be compensated on the basis of how much labor they put into the mass production of the product. The creation of this movement is most commonly affixed to Mikhail Bukanin, the First Internationals, and the early Spanish anarchist movement. The name we now use, collectivism, was first coined to separate the collectivist anarchists form the state officials who were associated with Karl Marx. A problem that should be noted with this particular branch of anarchism is the fact that who dictates the amount of compensation per labor hours? Also on that point, who dictates what kind of labor is worth exactly how much compensation? If you have a council gather and speak of the value of wages and labor, then you default as a republic, and you automatically fail at the abolishment of state. The same can be said for if you choose to have all individuals vote on the amount of wages and compensation of labor, except you are a democracy instead of a republic. On the later, you have someone making the decisions for you, completely over riding the concept of lack of governing body. On the other hand, if you have all members vote, then who shall make sure the vote was honest and fair? If you choose people to watch the ballots, then you are in the same quandary as you where in the beginning, and you have made no progress. Volunteers would work, but then who would watch their actions, to make sure they weren’t tipping the proverbial scale? Anarcho-Communism is similar in several ways to the fore mentioned Collectivism approach, adding the abolition of capitalism. It does so by using a network of voluntary associations to allow everyone free to satisfy their own needs. It stresses egalitarianism (equality in all things, from wages to economic position), believing that every human being is equal, no matter race, age, or gender. This belief includes that all people who do the same career should be paid the same wage. It also believes in the distribution of wealth based on personal need. Anarchist Communists are commonly called libertarian communists. This is due to the two groups very similar beliefs. However it is good to note that while all anarchist communists are libertarians, not all libertarian communists are anarchists. What distinguishes the two groups is that anarchist communism has an opposition to all forms of political hierarchy. Any form of communism is flawed in one fact: It leaves no reason for improvement. If you knew you could get the same wage for repairing automobiles as a man with twenty years experience, a certification in the field, and a college education, then most human beings would rather not bother with the post high school training, if high school was even a requirement. Its also flawed in the fact that it gives no reason to excel. If mediocrity is awarded the same as excellence, then why be excellent? Personal satisfaction only goes so far with most people. The distribution of wealth based on personal need is conceptually sound, but ultimately flawed as well. Who would dictate need? As above, any group of people chosen to make decisions is a governing body and who can tell if the volunteers who watched the ballots aren’t crooked? Anarcho-Syndicalism is a branch of anarchism focusing on the labor movement, which supports the creation of unions and uses the labor unions as a replacement for capitalism and state. After usurping these forms of economic and political oppression, they wish to replace them with democratically controlled unions with the hopes of putting power back into the workers. They seek to abolish the wage system and in the process hope to remove division of social classes. Oddly enough, Anarcho-syndicalism is viewed as a anachronism (something that doesn’t belong in the time it is presented). However, the belief remains a popular and active school, and has many supporters. They also have many currently active groups. Many anarchists argue that this belief is more of an anarchist social structure then an economic system.. The problem with this is the use of the unions. In electing officials to represent you in the union, you have created a governing body, and a potentially one dangerous at that. They have the power to dictate wages, benefits, and hours. They could easily abuse their powers and blackmail, or bribe, people. If they did abuse their powers, the general populous would of course strike, but history has shown that there are people willing to take advantage of the situation, known as â€Å"scabs† (non-union workers) The tradition known as Individualist Anarchism is known for its emphasis on individual sovereignty (the belief that only you have control over you) and non-aggression principle (the belief that to initiate violence is wrong). It is also against all forms of capitalism and emphasizes ones self over the group. This last part makes it in conflict with socialist anarchism, which believes in the betterment of all (rather then the self). There is also a belief that you have the right to be petitioned to buy from multiple vendors of an item you are interested in. Individualist anarchism is the form of anarchism most prevalent in the United States. This is one of two branches of anarchism considered to be the main one, with the other being collectivist. This particular class of anarchism is sometimes seen as an evolution of classic liberalism, and is often called â€Å"liberal anarchism.† Many anarchists who follow this particular train of thought follow the â€Å"law of equal liberty,â€Å" a belief that whatever makes man happy is good, and whatever makes man sad is bad, and the pursuit of that is a human right. It is also said in this doctrine that if you interfere with another’s pursuit of said happiness, you have overstepped and abused that right. There are several offshoots of individualist anarchism, the most common of which would be anarcho-capitalism. This is the form of anarchism that most people find most easy to follow, but most fail to see the inherent problems in their chosen belief. In accentuating the self over others, you are in essence placing yourself above all others, something that anarchists generally frown upon. The belief that you are better then someone else just because you are you is an assault to the beliefs of most anarchists, who (usually) believe that everyone should have a fair chance at life. It should be noted that a constant problem when using the classifications listed above, and the many others attributed to anarchist beliefs, is the complete lack of uniform opinion on what the true beliefs are. If you fill a room with two thousand anarchists you will have two thousand very different opinions. This is a cause of endless frustration to scholars, causing much debate on the topic. Fundamentally, there is a flaw in all types of anarchism. If you have a lack of authority, then are there no laws? If there are no laws, then you merely have survival of the fittest. People are tempted by what others have and this causes them to lash out with greed. People also have a tendency to fear what the do not, or refuse to, understand and that which they cannot control. This causes mass hysteria, making people react in ways that they would normally abhor, (i.e, Salem witch burnings and the Catholic Inquisition). The way people react means there would need to be someone who could keep the perpetrator from hurting anyone and anyone from hurting the perpetrator. In so doing you would have to establish a law system. This system of legislation would need marshals to enforce the laws. From there you would need taxes to pay for the training of these wardens. After that you would have to set up someone to keep track of the taxes, and the road would continue on. It would eventually lead to the creation of a governing body. The real problem arises when you consider the social impactions of an ungoverned land. People generally act in a way that benefits them, with mild to no concern of those around them. This action leads people to react in a way sometimes referred to as â€Å"dog-eat-dog,† especially in situations where they view a possible gain or have no reason to be courteous. If someone came to your house with the intent of robbing it, how would you react? Most would defend themselves, but if they were over powered, the attacker would take anything and everything they wanted, and you could do nothing. Eventually this would lead to much vigilantism, which would in turn lead to people killing others, sometimes without proof of any misdeed. From there it would grow, until a form of control was brought to them, ending the warranted and unwarranted killings. In the end, anarchism would revert to some other form of governance. It might be a republic, if there is a need for representatives to be the eyes and ears of the people. It might be a dictatorship, as the strong and persuasive take power over the docile. It might be a democracy, in which every person gets a say and has their voice heard. Ultimately, however, an anarchist world, country, or even village, would not last. The volatile nature of human beings, coupled with there want for bigger and better possessions, has made it so we are eternally going to have the proverbial â€Å"Big Brother.† What we need to consider as a species is quite simple. Why can’t people come together in harmonized unity, without the need for some overpower? Why are we unable to govern ourselves? And, most importantly, why can’t there be a need for peace, instead of a need to be better then all those around us? 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Phrasal Verbs With Look for English Learners

Phrasal Verbs With Look for English Learners There are a number of phrasal verbs and phrasal verb expressions with the verb look.  If you are unfamiliar with phrasal verbs, this guide to what are phrasal verbs explains everything. Teachers can use this introducing phrasal verbs lesson plan to help students become more familiar with phrasal verbs and start building phrasal verb vocabulary. Finally, there are a wide variety of phrasal verb resources on the site to help you learn new phrasal verbs. Learning Phrasal Verbs with Look Read this story about a man who looked up his friend Peter. You will notice that the story is full of phrasal verbs and expressions with look. Try to read the story a few times to understand how the various phrasal verbs with look are used. Following the story, you will also find all the phrasal verbs with look put into categories with definitions and example sentences taken from the story. Looking Up Peter in Seattle Last week I was in Seattle and I remembered that my friend Peter had recently moved there. I looked up his name in the telephone book, called, but got the answering machine. Luckily, I finally found him at work. He was looking at a picture on his desk, and I swear he looked like the famous actor Harrison Ford! I know Peter looked up to Harrison Ford, but I was a little surprised to see that he had become a look-alike! I said Look lively! and he raised his eyes and looked me up and down. Hello! if it isnt my old friend Ken!, Peter said. With that, he got up, looked me up and down and shook my hand. I must admit, Peter didnt look his age in the slightest. In fact, he looked as if he was ten years older! I looked him straight in the eye and said, Well, I was in town and thought Id look in on you to see how youre doing in Seattle. How have you been? Peter responded that he was fine, but that he was also on the look out for a new cat. Looking over at the picture, I noticed that it was of a cat. Yes, he sighed, I didnt really look after my first cat very well. It ran away. Im sorry to hear that, I said. We talked for a while and decided to go out for a coffee. We were at a Starbucks when a beautiful woman walked into the Cafe. Peter quickly looked the other way. Whos she?, I asked. Nobody, just someone who looks down their nose at me. Just then somebody shouted Look out! Peter jumped up and pushed the woman hard. At first, she looked daggers at him. Then, realizing what had happened, she noticed that because Peter had been looking lively, she hadnt slipped on a ice coffee drink that was all over the floor. Im glad I looked Peter up, it certainly was an interesting day... Phrasal Verbs with Look Finding Someone or Something Look up: look for information in a reference bookI looked up his name in the telephone book, called, but got the answering machine.to find someoneIm glad I looked Peter up, it certainly was an interesting day. Look in on someone: visit someone at their home or place of work, check up on someoneI was in town and thought Id look in on you to see how youre doing in Seattle. Be on the look out for: Trying to find something or someone, interested in purchasing something Look up to someone: respect or admire someoneI know Peter looked up to Harrison Ford. Look someone up and down: Examine someone carefully, look at someone very carefully, often with disdainWith that, he got up, looked me up and down and shook my hand. Look someone straight in the eye Look at someone with seriousnessI looked him straight in the eye... Expressions of Looking at People or Things Look over at: To look in the direction of somethingLooking over at the picture, I noticed that it was of a cat. Look the other way: Look away from something that you see, not notice something on purposePeter quickly looked the other way. Look down your nose on/at someone: Feel superior to someone...someone who looks down their nose at me. Look daggers at someone: Look with hatred or intense dislike at someoneAt first, she looked daggers at him. Look after: Take care of something or someoneI didnt really look after my first cat very well. It ran away. Appearances Look like: Be similar in physical appearance... he looked like the famous actor Harrison Ford! Look your age: Appear to be your actual age (someone can look older, or younger than their age)I must admit, Peter didnt look his age in the slightest. Warnings Look out!: Be carefulLook out! Look lively!: Pay attention...she noticed that because Peter had been looking lively, she hadnt slipped on a ice coffee drink...

Adaptation of Hills Like White Elephant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Adaptation of Hills Like White Elephant - Essay Example Women and men; seduction stories bring to the screen three stories each of which is focused on a man and a woman. Ernest Hemingway perfectly describes the setting of the story it a description of the view of River Ebro and white hills from a point at the train station in Spain. The girl likens the mountains to elephants which the American had never seen. These hills across the valley of Ebrol are described to be long and white with no shade or trees on the inside unlike the setting in the movie which shows the American and the girl seated with drinks on the table as they continue with their journey. The settings in the novel as well as in the movie do not show any variation as they are similarly outlined. The American and the girl are the main characters of the story. However, the American does not reveal his name; neither does the girl address him by his name. The American’s convincing nature is clearly shown as he tries to convince the girl undergo an operation without carin g about the girl. The girl is the female protagonist in the story. The American addresses her as jig although her real name is not revealed in the story. The girl being less sure of what she wants tempts the American to convince her to have an abortion. The girl seems not to care or worry about her self-worth as she is ready to undergo abortion (operation) as long as the American loves her. She is not straight forward about what she actually wants. â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† consists of the dialogue between the American man and the girl with only few narrated segments in the story as opposed to the lengthy stage direction and frequency of occurrence in the women and men; seduction stories movie. This keeps the reader in the dark about the previous actions of the character and their motives. The aspect of flash is well captured in the women and men; seduction stories movie which helps the viewer to keep pace with previous actions, character’s actions and intentio ns or motives. This helps to set the mood and also establishes the landscape in understanding the conflict of the characters. The inability of the girl to speak Spanish with the bar attendant is an illustration of how dialogue is emphasized and her independence on the American and also shows the difficulties she had in expressing herself to other people. The American and the girl as well as the underlying conflict are characterized by the content and the manner of conversation which demonstrates radical compression and a higher degree of suggestiveness and implication. This is demonstrated during the first interaction between the American and the girl regarding the choice of a drink in which the girl asks the American. This conversation outlines the lack of the girl’s free will to ask for a drink while showing the manipulating character of the man. Conversation is also evident when the girl begs the man to stop talking after she realized that their conversation were futile. T he girl begs him ‘†¦.please, please, please, please†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Language and communication between the American and the girl become intense and more focused as the couples’ relationship is in a crisis due to the girl’s pregnancy. The couple seems to struggle in their conversation on the course they relationship will take especially when in public. To make matters worse, the readers are left not knowing whether the couple was able to find a common ground as the story ends

In times of crisis, such as the one currently experienced in Europe, Assignment

In times of crisis, such as the one currently experienced in Europe, new ideas of how to manage and organise are required for - Assignment Example In this situation, it becomes important to create new organizations and create new jobs in order to sustain. The report will discuss about the global economic crisis and its impact on the national economies of the nations. In this context it will specifically highlight the Euro crisis and its impact on the affected countries. It will also emphasize the importance of new company establishments and job creation in a country. The report will also shed light on how individuals influence the management practices of an organization. Finally the report will conclude stating the extent to which an individual impacts in company establishment and management practices. Introduction During the last 15 years, countries around the world have been able to make impressive advancement and historical transformations in their economical policies. With rapid globalization and based on the institutional establishments nations have been successful in building up effervescent private sector. It has also le d the countries to participate in international trade (Rutkowski and Scarpetta, 2005, p.xiii). The economic growth has in turn helped the nations to reduce the level of poverty as well as brought higher incomes. However the global economic downturn has disrupted the growth process and clearly indicated that no economic policy is stable enough to face economic crisis. Many scholars thus highlighted that it is important for the nations to focus on reforming the financials of a country. In this context a number of scholars have highlighted that financials of a country can be best reformed by creating new business ventures and thereby creating new jobs. According to Global Entrepreneur Monitor (GEM) around the world there are 200 million who are engaged in the creation of new jobs. There are another 200 million people who are the managers or owners of newly established firms. The study was carried out in 75 countries of the world and which covered nearly 80% of the total population of t he world (Reynolds and Curtin, 2010, p.1). The focus of the project will be therefore based upon the issue of how creation of new business and jobs will aid a nation to embrace economic growth. The intentions of the projects will be also to uncover how new business and jobs will be created and sustained during the crisis periods. The next half of the project will discuss all the relevant theories as well as the earlier literatures from the same field of study. Discussion In the recent past one of the major economic crisis occurred in Europe, which is also known as the Euro Crisis. It is an ongoing financial emergency that has caused difficulties for a number of countries in Europe to refinance the debt of their Government. This economic catastrophe has impacted the Euro economy to a large extant. Countries such as Greece, Portugal, Italy, Ireland and Spain or collectively known as GIIPS were the major sufferers. It has actually destroyed the economies of European Union. A number of reasons have been highlighted regarding the cause of this economical turbulence. The Euro Crisis In Europe there

Wegmans Essay Example for Free

Wegmans Essay Core competencies are the things that give a company one or more competitive advantages, in creating and delivering value to its customers in its chosen field. Also called core capabilities or distinctive competencies. It can be composed of different elements such as superior quality, customer services, innovation, team building, flexibility and responsiveness, etc. Firstly, Wegmans has a better customer service. Wegmans focus on customer service, their goal is to build an emotional connection with their customer. Wegmans give a college scholarship for both its full and part-time employees to locations around the world to learn about or to locate new and unique sources of foods. Wegmans employees have a rich knowledge can give a better support for their customer. Secondly, Wegmans has a good team building. Wegmans instituted a host of employees-friendly benefits such as profit-sharing and full medical coverage. Also, Wegmans’ annual salaries for full-time workers and hourly wages for part-time workers are among the highest in the industry. The result is Wegmans generous pay scale and its consistent listing as one of the 100 best companies to work for also attracts quality workers. Those strategies can build a sense of belonging of the employees. Thirdly, Wegmans has an innovation idea. For example, Wegmans built a 300-seat cafà © in their first store in Rochester, New York, a concept that was unheard of in 1930. Fourthly, Wegmans can provide a high quality product to customer. Because of Wegman employees have a rich knowledge of the food, they can locate a high quality supplier to Wegmans and provide some better product to customer. Finally, Wegmans has a good flexibility and responsiveness. For example, Wegmans employees can explain 500 varieties of cheese to customer, which types of crackers to serve them on, and which wines go best with them. Wegmans employees can give different suggestion to customer depend on what the customers needs.

Preserve The Forests :: essays research papers

Preserve the Forests   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In agreement with Kim Stafford, who opposes the clear-cutting of old growth forests, I feel that it is necessary to preserve the profitable lumber in its natural state for future generations. Currently, the tons of lumber produced from the Pacific Northwest region of the United States are taken for granted, and most people do not realize that the forests will be destroyed within ten years at this rate of exploiting our natural resources. We must make loggers a profession of the past and divert those current ones into another sector in our society. The spotted owl is more than a *Darwinistic* survival of the fittest issue; it represents the direction of our only planet.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to preserve the beauty of this planet, we must cease the clear- cutting of forests. All old growth forests have been around for multiple centuries and are cut down daily in a matter of hours in order to produce more buildings and houses in this already over-crowded world. If the rate at which we cut down trees is continued without any regulation, the forests will all be gone in ten years, so we should do mankind a favor and try to preserve what is left. If the old growth forests are gone, then they can never return because it takes over five generations to produce one and at the rate that the human population is increasing, there is not enough land to have a secure place for a new forest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If we realize that it is best for the human race to stop destroying the natural resources, then we must destroy, too, the existence of loggers all together. To do so, there must not be any new loggers, so all training potential loggers must be stopped. The current loggers must be diverted to another occupation. Perhaps if the public supported the notion of stopping clear-cutting, the government would be able to provide services to educate the loggers in a different field. Also, with public support, many companies will probably offer several programs for former loggers. No matter what we choose today, the loggers have seen their last Haley*s comet; they will all be gone with forests in ten years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When we stop the development and decrease the number of loggers, we will help save the spotted owl, a species that has greater importance than a mere animal towards the our species. It is a symbol of the general health of Mother Earth, a figure without which no living object can survive. If the cutting of

To what extent was the Crimean War (1853 †1856) ‘disastrously planned and poorly executed’ (Economist 2014)

Introduction This essay examines the claim that the Crimean War (1853-1856) was ‘disastrously planned and poorly executed’ (Economist 2014). The first section looks at the circumstances out of which the war arose, providing some background to the conflict while suggesting that from its inception the war was characterised by errors in judgment and miscommunication. The next section proceeds to discuss the many naval blunders that took place during the war, looking both at the Crimea as well as the less commonly discussed Far East. This is followed by a consideration of the land operations of the conflict, paying particular attention to actions of the British. The analysis then turns to the provisioning of the Allied and Russian forces, as well as the quality of services such as medical care. Finally, the last section briefly considers the consequences of the war for the parties involved. It is concluded that the Crimean War was characterised by an unusually large number of errors in t erms of planning and execution. Poor planning and organisation can arguably be seen from the outbreak of war. The desire to access the Mediterranean had been a long-standing ambition of Russia’s by the mid-19th century (Economist 2014; Lambert 2011). Thus the weakness of the Ottoman Empire in the period was seized upon, partially concealed, of course, by excuses about the persecution of Christian minorities in the Ottoman Empire. The backdrop to this was a broader dispute about who should rule the Holy Land: Orthodox Russia or Catholic France (Clough 1964). The Turkish-Russian dispute included several lacklustre, abortive attempts at peaceful resolution through diplomacy, after which the Russian Army invaded Moldavia and Wallachia (parts of modern-day Moldova and Romania) on 2 July 1853, sinking the Turkish fleet at Sinope in 1853. This was followed by a Turkish declaration of war on 5 October of the same year (Economist 2014). However, the actions of Russia were to an extent the result of a miscalculation. In spite of a caustic public reaction in Britain and France, the Allied response to the invasion was a cautious one to begin with, characterised by dithering, uncertain diplomacy (Economist 2014). This ‘misled Russia into believing that it could continue its aggression against the Ottomans without consequences’, and Britain and France unexpectedly declared war in March 1854 (Economist 2014). The conflict then escalated when the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont joined the war against Russia the following year. A degree of poor coordination and misunderstanding can therefore be seen from the outset. For Britain and France, this took the form of confused, uncertain policy; for Russia, it was a misinterpretation of the likelihood that other parties would join the war (Lambert 2011). Clough (1964: 917) makes this point succinctly, arguing that war arose from ‘Napoleon’s search for presti ge; Nicholas’s quest for control over the Straits; his naive miscalculation of the probable reaction of the European powers; the failure of those powers to make their position and the pressure of public opinion in Britain and Constantinople at crucial moments’. For Clough (1964), therefore, the war was a disorganised, poorly planned shambles from the very beginning. It was the product not only of confusion but also of the hubris and inflated ambitions of the leaders of Europe at the time. It seems probable that the war arose out of somewhat chaotic circumstances and was therefore tainted from the start, but the question of whether this pattern continued remains. The actual combat side of the war appears to have been shambolic in many cases. This is suggested by the first events of the war. Despite being unyielding in the face of Russian aggression, it seems that Turkey was not prepared for the eventuality of conflict (Economist 2014; Bloy 2002a). When the Russian fleet arrived off Sinope on the southern coast of the Black Sea, the Turkish Admiral was unprepared for battle. His squadron was relatively weak, consisting of only 6 frigates, 3 corvettes, and two small paddle steamers. Additionally, his largest guns were only 24-pounders, and his troops were poorly trained and unready for war. By comparison, the Russian fleet under Admiral Nakhimov was ‘vastly superior in numbers, size and gunpower’ (Brown 1989). The full extent of the imbalance is revealed by the fact that with the exception of one ship the entire Turkish fleet, including 3000 sailors, was destroyed, with the Russians suffering negligible losses. The Turks were not prepared to defend their territories, and probably did not have the ability to do so in any case (Brown 1989). The dramatic outcome of this conflict was a great shock. Few in the navy or elsewhere had anticipated the devastating effect of shells on wooden ships, and as Brown (1989) notes, ‘Naval and public opinion showed surprise, shock and horror at the casualties’. Therefore, even at this early there is evidence of poor preparation and a lack of understanding of how the war would be conducted on the part of the Turks if not the Russians. The same cannot quite be said of the British and French. While many critics expressed shock at the event of Sinope, preparations had been made. The British had tested shells against the Prince George and the French had done likewise at Garve. Moreover, in response to the success of the Russian navy the French began the construction of heavily fortified armament batteries for coastal attack. That this was prior to the declaration of war suggests a degree of naval preparation on the part of the Allies (Lambert 2011). Nevertheless, there were serious shortcomings with the British fleet in particular that suggest both poor execution and planning. In the first place, it was wrongly believed that the Russian Baltic fleet might invade the United Kingdom, which turned out to be unjustified and stalled operations for over a year (Brown 1989). This was a strategic error and what it suggests about execution and planning can be debated. Additionally, when the British fleet went into the conflict it had problems with manpower. For example, admirals were promoted by seniority, which meant they tended to be older than was desirable. More importantly, many vessels were undermanned due to the poor pay and conditions on ships. When Britain declared war these problems had yet to be resolved, which indicates a distinct lack of preparedness (Brown 1989). In recent decades it has been argued by historians that Britain was guilty of extremely poor naval strategy, which would amount to a poor execution of the war on their part. Lambert (1990, cited in Fuller 2014) is among the most famous to put forward this thesis. He argued that ‘the real war could have been decided†¦in the Baltic, and won by the full might of a modern maritime power against a continental one’ (Fuller 2014: 2). When the strength of the British navy at this time, in terms of size and technology, is considered, this argument seems like a strong one. The British navy was notably ahead of its counterparts insofar as it included large numbers mortar vessels and ironclad batteries. Lambert believed that Cronstadt would definitely have fallen to the heavily armed British flotilla, and that the Russian realisation of this fact what forced peace in the end (Fuller 2014). Perhaps, then, the failure of the British to fully utilise its navy’s potential in the Baltic amounts to a strategic blunder. It is doubtful, however, that this part of the war was as poorly executed as Lambert argued. As Fuller (2014) notes, unilateral action (the so-called ‘Great Armament’) against Cronstadt might have alienated the French, who were on poor terms with the British. It might also have driven up the cost of the war to unsustainable levels, stretching the economy to breaking point. This much is suggested by a review in 1856 of the ‘Great Armament’, which noted that Britain could not provide any ‘proof of unabated strength and unexhausted resources’ (Fuller 2014: 38). This warning was echoed by Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Chancellor of the Exchequer in Palmerston’s ministry, who expressed concern that ‘our financial prospect is very bad, a declining revenue, rising prices, a large loan wanted which will be got on bad terms, and more money lent to Sardinia and Turkey’ (Fuller 2014: 38). The so-called missed opportunities in the Baltic, therefore, do not suggest poor planning and execution. Nevertheless, one might make the case that the poor financial prospect of Britain by the end of the war suggests a lack of preparation. Another line of argument, directed once again at the British, focuses on naval operations in the Pacific. Stephan (1969: 257), for example, describes the ‘tragi-comic nature of tactical operations in the Far East’. He notes that despite the overwhelming superiority of the Allied naval forces in around China and the Pacific, almost no headway was made in that sphere. Indeed, the Allies had twenty five ships of war, including six steamers, while the Russians could muster only six which were later reduced to four (Stephan 1969). Poor execution and planning in this case manifested in two ways. In the first place, there was little coordination between the China and Pacific squadrons and the British and French fleets in the area. As Stephan (1969: 258) notes, ‘at the outbreak of war†¦the British Commander-in-Chief of the China Squadron, Rear Admiral Sir James Stirling, was sailing from Singapore to Hong Kong. The rest of the squadron lay scattered among the Chinese treaty ports such as Shanghai, Amoy, and Canton.’ This arose from the folly of dividing command of the fleet, as well as a lack of information about the location of both friend and foe. Indeed, Stephan (1969) suggests that Stirling (who rather tellingly was only appointed Commander-in-Chief on 4 March), probably did not even know the location of Russian warships. There is relatively clear evidence that naval operations were fairly shambolic on the part of both the British and the French. The same is true of events on land. The Battle of the River Alma on 20 Sept 1984, for example, saw the British forces charge headlong against a fortified Russian position, the result of a ‘lack of information and lack of reconnoitre’ which meant that a number of easier routes went undiscovered. The British forces only triumphed because such an imprudent move was considered too unlikely to prepare against. The aftermath, moreover, saw poor execution insofar as the cavalry did not pursue the routing Russians, allowing them instead to fortify Sevastopol and thus draw out the war. This was further compounded when disagreements between the French and British commanders delayed the march to Sevastopol by several weeks, after which the city was heavily defended. The most famous of the blunders was, of course, the Charge of Light Brigade during the Battl e of Balaclava on 25 Oct 1854, in which a brigade of 670 cavalry under Lord Cardigan attacked an extremely heavily fortified Russian redoubt. The now famous calamity during which much of the Light Brigade was destroyed was the product of a simple miscommunication but reflects deeper issues with the British forces related to internal divisions, inexperience, and the unwillingness to question absurd orders. All of this translates to poor execution in warfare. In examining the conduct and organisation of the war more generally it is obvious that there was little sophisticated coordination or planning (Sweetman 2001). At every level of the Allied war effort this was true. Within the British army, for example, the artillery and engineers were commanded by the Master-General of Ordinance while the infantry and cavalry were commanded by the Commander-in-Chief at the Horse Guards, Lord Raglan, which made coordinated planning difficult (Sweetman 2001). Then, of course, the Royal Navy was a separate branch of the military, answerable only to the Lords of the Admiralty. This chaotic set-up hindered the Allied offensive at Sevastopol, as Raglan could not coordinate the British forces on land and sea without undertaking time-consuming and inefficient communications (Sweetman 2001). This is not to mention the fact that there was no overall commander with the authority to coordinate the various national armies of each Allied nation, as had been the ca se during the Peninsula War with the Duke of Wellington. Thus, ‘the entire ramshackle structure palpably lacked coordination’, and it is important to appreciate ‘the constraints that this put on drawing up strategic plans or executing tactical operations’ (Sweetman 2001: 16). The Russians were less culpable in these terms, although there were many shortcomings in their preparations. Urry (1989) has noted how the Russian land forces suffered severely from poor provisioning, something which became particularly damaging in the summer of 1854. By September, there were 50, 000 Russian troops in the Crimean Peninsula, but the Provisions’ Commission was comparatively small and badly managed. Place this in the geographical context and it appears even more serious. Most of the Crimea was barren and sparsely populated, which meant that the troops and animals in the region were more reliant on their supply chain than usual (Urry 1989). The infrastructure necessary to support the Russian war effort was also inadequate in many cases. Roads were of poor quality and transport networks were badly run and unreliable, which contributed to the problem of supplying the troops. Even those supplies that did arrive had often spoiled because of the excessive time it took to transport goods. This situation was improved somewhat when the new Russian Commander, General Prince M. D. Gorchakov, saw the reorganisation of the supply system, but much of the damage was already done (Urry 1989; Curtiss 1979). This is a clear example of poor preparation on the part of the Russians. Poor planning in terms of supplies was also a major problem for the Allies. The most striking example of this occurred on 14 November 1854 when a ‘Great Storm’ sunk 30 ships in Balaclava harbour and destroyed ?3 million worth of supplies, coinciding with the onset of the harsh winter. The Allies, however, had only prepared for a summer campaign, and the results were catastrophic. As Bloy (2002a) put it: ‘The Allies†¦had to make do with summer equipment: tents, light clothes and so on. It took months to re-supply them. Men died of exposure, disease, starvation.’ The situation was compounded by poor organisation and management in the aftermath, as well as the natural barriers of substandard roads and communication networks (Bloy 2002a). As poor as the organisational side of the war was for all sides, the Russian war effort was comparatively impressive. This conclusion is supported by the fact that the Russian were operating under very difficult conditions. Firstly, the defence of Sevastopol was an inherently problematic affair. The size of Russia required a wide distribution of troops, especially in the Baltic to prevent the Allies landing there (Urry 1989). Then there was uncertainty regarding the neutrality of Prussia, and especially Austria, which meant that troops had to be stationed along Russia’s lengthy western border. The barren nature of much of the Russian territory, moreover, especially in the south, was an unfortunate barrier that hampered supply, communication, and the movement of troops (Urry 1989). As Urry (1989) argues, these factors contributed to difficulties experienced by the Russians, and in many cases even good preparation and execution would have made it difficult to overcome such facto rs. On the other, one might argue that the decision to start a war in the face of so many natural barriers should be regarded as a major strategic failure (Jones 2013; Bloy 2002a). One area in which all parties lacked planning was medical provision. The low quality of care afforded to wounded soldiers in British hospitals has become notorious primarily because of Florence Nightingale’s work as Scutari. The quality of French medical care was supposedly slightly better, as is attested by William Howard Russell: ‘Here the French are greatly our superiors. Their medical arrangements are extremely good†¦ and they have the help of the Sisters of Charity†¦. These devoted women are excellent nurses.’ Nevertheless, even this relied on volunteers (Curtiss 1966: 98). The Russians likewise had to rely on volunteers, who operated under the aegis of the Exaltation of the Cross (Curtiss 1966). Testimony from the brace medical volunteers in the Russians forces reveals the shoddy set-up in place, especially with regard to the convoy system designed to transport wounded soldiers. This was supposedly poorly supplied with blankets, had few good driver s, and little in the way of food and water (Curtiss 1979; Curtiss 1966). The Crimean War was concluded peacefully at the Treaty of Paris on 30 March 1856 after the fall of Sevastopol, probably to the advantage of all parties. The conflict itself was of little obvious benefit to any nation, with the possible exception of Turkey, which had captured possessions restored to it by Russia (Bloy 2002a; Seton-Watson 1988). In turn, regions captured by the Allies, such as Sevastopol and Balaclava, were restored. Territories were thus redistributed to the participants in much the same way as before the war had begun. One of the most important effects of war was that it prohibited both Turkey and Russia from establishing a naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea, which weakened the Russian position. However, this turned out to be unenforceable and a few decades later Russia had violated the agreement (Gorizontov 2012; Seton-Watson 1988). The conflict did have important long-term implication insofar as it permanently weakened the position of Tsarist Russia, and sa w the ascendency of the France as the preeminent power in Europe. It therefore saw the end of the Concert of Europe, the balance of power that had existed since the Congress of Vienna in 1815 (Bloy 2002a, 2002b). In conclusion, the Crimean War was both poorly planned and poorly executed. This essay has outlined the numerous strategic, tactical, and logistical failures perpetrated by all sides, but especially by the Allies and Britain in particular. However, as important as these moments were in defining the nature of the conflict and solidifying its reputation, it was problematic from the outset. As Clough (1964: 917) puts it: ‘it was not the result of a calculated plan, nor even of hasty last-minute decisions made under stress. It was the consequence of more than two years of fatal blundering in slow-motion by inept statesmen who had months to reflect upon the actions they took.’ Ultimately, while there are many mitigating factors, moments of triumph, and cases of heroism and coordination – especially in the medical sphere – this is a reputation well-deserved. References Bloy, M. (2002a) The Crimean War: ‘Britain in Blunderland’, The Victorian Web http://www.victorianweb.org/history/crimea/blunder2.html [Retrieved 10/06/2014] Bloy, M. (2002b) The Crimean War: comment on attitudes in Britain, The Victorian Web http://www.victorianweb.org/history/crimea/attitude.html [Retrieved 10/06/2014] Brown, D. K. (1989) The Royal Navy in the Crimean War: Technological Advances http://www.worldnavalships.com/forums/showthread.php?t=14517 [Retrieved 04/06/2014] Clough, S. B., ed. (1964) A History of the Western World. Boston, Heath: University of Michigan Press Curtiss, J. S. (1979) Russia’s Crimean War, Durham, N.C: Duke University Press Curtiss, J. S. (1966) Russian Sisters of Mercy in the Crimea, 1854-1855, Slavic Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 84-100 Fuller, H. J. (2014) Could Have, Would Have, Should HaveEngland’s ‘Great Armament’ during the Crimean War, the proposed naval assault upon Cronstadt’s defences and the Peace of 1856: Re-examining the evidence, University of Wolverhampton Gorizontov, L. E. (2012) ‘The Crimean War as a Test of Russia’s Imperial Durability’, Russian Studies in History 51 (1), pp. 65–94 Jones, H. P. (2012) Southern Military Interests in the Crimean War, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 25, pp. 35–52 Lambert, A. (2011) The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy against Russia, 1853–56, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Seton-Watson, H. (1988) The Russian Empire 1801–1917. Oxford: Clarendon Press Stephan, J. J. (1969) The Crimean War in the Far East, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 257-277 Sweetman, J. (2001) The Crimean War: 1854-1856, Oxford: Osprey Publishing The Economist (May 2014) What the original Crimean war was all about, Economist http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2014/03/economist-explains-5 [Retrieved 11/06/2014] Urry, J. (1989) Mennonites and the Crimean War, 1854 – 1856, Journal of Mennonite Studies, Vol. 7, pp.10-32

Gender and Leadership: Literature Review

Gender and Leadership Literature Review 1. Introduction Leadership theories and literature describe what leaders should do and on the other hand literature also exists on what leaders actually do, the former are prescriptive and the latter are descriptive (Bratton et al; 2005). Leadership style is a relatively consistent set of behaviours that characterise a leader (DuBrin; 1995). The main leadership theories encompass the trait, behaviour, contingency, power influence, and gender influence and exchange leadership perspectives. This paper focuses on transformational leadership and thus will detail the theory underpinning transformational leadership vis a vis gender differences in leadership. A brief discussion on Leadership effectiveness as it relates to gender and Leadership styles will also be shown. In a study of gender and leadership styles it is important to highlight the deeper foundations that have a bearing on why men and women may lead differently. One of those causes has been found to be culture; a brief review of this construct and its’ bearing on gender has also been outlined in this section. . 2Gender and Leadership Swanepoel et al (2003) define gender as a â€Å"demographic factor that may influence Human Resources Management in organisations and which can lead to similar problems of discrimination in the workplace†. DuBrin (1995) state that the terms sex and gender arouse controversy both scientifically and politically. He further states that the term gender refers to perception s about the differences among males and females whilst sex differences refer to actual tangible differences such as the fact that the mean height of men is greater than that of women. The terms gender and sex are, however, often used interchangeably. Task and interpersonal styles in leadership research are obviously relevant to gender because of the stereotypes people have about sex differences in these aspects of behaviour (Ashmore, Del Boca, & Wohlers, 1986; Eagly & Steffen, 1984). Men are believed to be more self-assertive and motivated to control their environment (e. g. , more aggressive, independent, self-sufficient, forceful, and dominant). In contrast, women are believed to be more selfless and concerned with others (e. . , more kind, helpful, understanding, warm, sympathetic, and aware of others' feelings). Although democratic versus autocratic style is a different (and narrower) aspect of leader behaviour than task-oriented and interpersonally oriented styles (see Bass, 1981), the democratic- autocratic dimension also relates to gender stereotypes, because one component of these stereotypes is that men are relatively dominant and controlling (i. e. , mor e autocratic and directive than women. Bratton et al (2005) highlight a study conducted by Schein (1975) who extended the gender issue in Leadership further with the results confirming that to both the male and female managers who participated in the study; being a successful manager meant being masculine in terms of stereotypical behaviours (Bratton et al, 2005). Wajcman in Bratton, Grint and Nelson stated, â€Å"Some leadership behaviours are interpreted differently depending on the gender of the leader. For example, a particular action seen as â€Å"firm† when displayed by a man (e. , banging the table top with the hand) might be termed â€Å"hysterical† when displayed by a woman. † (Bratton et al; 189). Women are said to find participative management more natural than men because they feel more comfortable interacting with people and that their natural sensitivity encourages group members to participate in decision- making (Dubrin; 1995). Yet as women move up the corporate ladder, their identifica tion with the male model of corporate success becomes important and may even reject the few feminine traits that they may earlier have endorsed. Bass (1998) in his review of studies other than his own concludes that there is no consistent pattern of male-female differences in leadership styles. Modern theory proposes that women lead differently than men (Bratton et al; 2005). This theory tends to promote the idea that women have the characteristics and skill that are necessary for effective leadership and that these skills and characteristics include a more interactional leadership style, the ability to build consensus, a tendency to empower others, and a greater ability to nurture others (Bratton et al; 2005). Robbins (date) in Swanepoel et al (2003) points out that the similarities between women and men tend to outweigh the differences, and that these differences suggest that men are comfortable with a directive style while female managers prefer a democratic style (Swanepoel et al; 2003). The gender perspective argues that women leaders have an interactive, people centered, participative management style. Women leaders are associated with consensus building and power sharing. Views in favour of the gender perspective advocate for equal opportunities at the work place; full utilization of women to utilize available human resources; acknowledgement of the â€Å"special contribution† women can make the work place due to their leadership style and alternate approaches to situations (Bratton, et al; 2005). Swanepoel et al (2003) state that in general women follow a transformational leadership style, which emphasises followers, consensus, and the use of charisma, personal reference and personal contact to enhance interpersonal relations and to influence followers. Men, however prefer a more direct style where job performance is seen as transactional and they also tend to use formal position, power and authority to control people. To tackle the question of whether men and women have different leadership styles, Eagly and Johnson conducted a 1990 review of leadership studies. Notably, although lab studies viewed women as both interpersonally oriented and democratic and men to be both task-oriented and autocratic, field studies indicated a difference on only one of those dimensions: The omen were found to be more democratic, encouraging participation, and the men were more autocratic, directing performance. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss A 2003 meta-analysis extended those results and indicated that women were slightly more likely than men to have the transformational leadership style. Women also appeared to reward good performance more than men, a very positive part of transactional leadership. Men were more likely to criticize subo rdinates and be less hands-on, styles found to be ineffective. http: www. psychologymatters. rg/womanboss. However, psychologists caution against concluding that women or men have some sort of natural or inherent leadership style. There is a possibility that women, knowing how negatively people respond to â€Å"bossy† women, soften their approach. Additionally, the research shows only averages, or tendencies, for each sex. Some men will have more â€Å"feminine† management styles; some women will have more â€Å"masculine† management styles. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Eagly's advice is to be careful about the power of perception. She says that even though the research found some differences in leadership style, â€Å"the sex differences are small because the leader role itself carries a lot of weight in determining people's behaviour. † She concludes that women are in some senses better leaders than men but suffer the disadvantage of leadership roles having a masculine image, especially in some settings and at higher levels. Stripping organizational leadership of its masculine aura would allow psychologists to get a clearer picture of any true differences between men and women. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Eagly and Johnson highlighted the following summaries from their review;† The preponderance of available evidence is that no consistently clear pattern of differences can be discerned in the supervisory style of female as compared to male leaders† (Bass, 198 l, p. 499);†There is as yet no research evidence that makes a case for sex differences in either leadership aptitude or style† (Kanter, 1977a, p. 199); â€Å"In general, comparative research indicates that there are few differences in the leadership styles of female and male designated leaders† (Bartol & Martin, 1986, 19. 278). However Quantitative reviews of this research have established the presence rather than the absence of overall sex differences (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Wood, in press; Hall, 1984). These differences, although typically not large, tend to be comparable in magnitude to most other findings reported in social psychological research. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) 3. 3 Cultural Dimension – the link to gender Several theories have been put forward to account for gender differences including biological differences, differences in early childhood and the fulfilment of culturally prescribed gender role expectations. Thomas and Bendixen (2000) refer to Thomas and Ely (1996) who capture the essence of cultural issues in organisations when they state that employees make choices at work based on their cultural background (Thomas and Bendixen; 2000). It is thus important for organisations to understand these values that employees bring into the workplace (Thomas and Bendixen; 2000). Thomas and Bendexin (2000) also lean on Trompenaars (1993) who identified different levels of culture, noting that national culture is at the highest level whilst organisational culture is at the next level down in the hierarchy of culture. Gender related differences in leadership styles may have a foundation in culture. Schein (1990) defines organisational culture as â€Å"a pattern of basic assumptions, invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore is to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. † (Schein, 1990; 111). He further identifies three levels at which culture manifests itself as observable artefacts, values, and basic underlying assumptions (Schein, 1990). Observable artefacts are things that one sees or feels upon entering an organisation. This includes the dress code, the physical layout, the smell and feel of the place to the more tangible things such as the annual reports and company records (Schein, 1990). â€Å"Through interviews, questionnaires, or survey instruments one can study a culture’s espoused and documented values, norms, ideologies, charters, and philosophies. (Schein, 1990; 112). More direct questioning can reveal the more the underlying assumptions, which â€Å"determine perceptions, thought processes, feelings and behaviour† (Schein, 1990; 112) For Edgar Schein (1985) the transformation that matters is a change in the corporate culture. What do leaders pay attention to, measure, and control sends symbolic signals to the rest of the corporate culture. Ho fstede is a central figure in the development of literature on the cultural construct in leadership (Dickson, Hartog & Mitchelson; 2003). He advances the idea that cultural differences are initially encountered as differences in shared values with values being defined as tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others (Dickson et al; 2003). Hofstede (1980,2001) described initially four culture dimensions; individualism-collectivism; masculinity-femininity; uncertainty avoidance; and power distance and a fifth dimension, future orientation was added in later work (Dickson et al; 2003). Power distance is â€Å"the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally†. Hofstede (in Dickson, Harthog & Mitchelson, 2003, pg 737). Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a society feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (Dickson et al p. 740). Individualism versus collectivism ranges from societies in which the ties between individuals are â€Å"loose† and people are expected to take care of themselves and close family only to societies that are â€Å"tight† where people expect their â€Å"in-group to look after them and they do so in return (Dickson, et al. 2003). Masculinity versus femininity ranges from societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct to societies in which social gender roles overlap (Dickson, et al. ; 2003). This dimension has a direct bearing on gender issues in that societal roles determine gender roles and these ultimately have a bearing on the leadership style that one practices, In her exploration of African management van der Colff (2003) uses the African tree concept advanced by Mbigi (1996). According to this concept the main stem underpinning all the most important values of African History can be traced through ubuntu, which is the key to all African values and involves collectivism (van der Colff; 2003). â€Å"Traditionally African leadership is built on participation, responsibility and spiritual authority†. (van der Colff; 2003,258). Nussbaum (1996) in van der Colff (2003) is quoted as saying that African leadership requires transparency, accountability and legitimacy. The only way they can be legitimate is to be trustworthy themselves before they can expect trust from employees (van der Colff; 2003). Bass (1997) has argued that transformational leadership is universally applicable. He proposed, that regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization, followers become motivated to expend greater effort than would would usually be expected. While acknowledging the universality of transformational leadership, Bass recognized that cultural differences will contribute to differences at the individual level of measurement. He stated â€Å"Variation occurs because the same concepts may contain specific thought processes, beliefs, implicit understandings, or behaviors in one culture not another† (p. 132). This raises the question of the universality of gender differences in transformational leadership. Although there have been several studies on gender differences in America, unknown is the extent that these findings are replicated in other cultures. This study will show some findings of transformational leadership with a Zimbabwean sample. 3. 4. Transformational Leadership theory From a broad perspective, leadership styles can be transformational and transactional; a transformational leadership style is one that seeks to influence behaviour through inspirational and motivational means. Transactional leadership styles use contingency factors such as rewards and punishment to influence and affect behaviour (Densten, Gray & Sarros, 2002). The transactional leadership theories emphasise transactions between leaders and their followers. Transactional leaders get things done by giving contingent rewards such as recognition and pay increases. These leaders usually manage by exception to monitor performance and take corrective action to remedy poor performance. They motivate followers by clarifying role and task requirements (Swanepoel; 2003). Transformational leadership was first coined by Burns (1978) and further developed by Bass (1985, 1998) and Yammarino & Bass, (1990) with research accumulating in the area over the past fourteen years. Transformational leadership is defined in terms of four inter-related factors: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Taken together, these sub-types are believed to represent the most effective attitudes and behaviours a leader can have. (Panopoulos; 1998). The transformational characteristic of idealised influence is based on earlier conceptualisations of charisma (e. g. House, 1977). The charismatic leader is able to inspire respect and higher order motivation in followers. The leader is able to communicate a sense of power and confidence in higher values and beliefs. The charismatic leader possesses a clear set of idealised qualities with which followers might wish to be associated (Panapoulos; 1998). The leader who provides inspirational motivation to followers is likely to speak optimistically about the future, articulating a compelling vision of what must be achieved. He motivates followers by his/her own enthusiasm. The leader is therefore not merely a distant charismatic source of referent power but is also able to directly and effectively translate his/her own enthusiasm to followers (Panapoulos; 1998). The leader must also provide intellectual stimulation to followers. In providing intellectual stimulation, the leader is said to orient ollowers to awareness of problems, to their own thoughts and imagination, and to the recognition of their beliefs and values (Yammarino & Bass, 1990 in Panapoulos; 1998). Furthermore, by providing an intellectually stimulating environment, transformational leaders are able to foster the development of creative solutions to problems, which stand in the way of organisational goal attainment. Panapoulos (1998) states that from a humanistic persp ective, the most outstanding component of transformational leadership is the leader’s individualised consideration of his/her followers. According to Bass and his colleagues (Yammarino, Spangler & Bass, 1993 in Panapoulos; 1998), a leader’s use of individual consideration is a crucial element in followers’ achievement of their full potential through a close consideration of their developmental needs. In providing individual consideration, the leader is not only aware of and sensitive to the current needs of followers, but is also aiming to elevate those needs to a higher level (in combination with the use of the other factors of transformational leadership). This can be done by coaching and mentoring, as well as by setting examples and tasks, which are developmentally consistent with the needs of each individual (Panapoulos; 1998). Gender differences in transformational leadership – A review of past research A number of authors have speculated on possible gender differences in the use of transformational leadership (e. g. , Avolio & Bass, 1988; Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995), however, there has been a notable lack of evidence (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass contends there are none. Yet, other studies show that women develop a â€Å"feminine style of leadership,† which is characterized by caring and nurturance, and men adopt a â€Å"masculine style of leadership†, which is dominating and task- oriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). In a study of 345 metropolitan branch managers Carless (1998) found that: Female managers are more likely than male managers to report that they take an interest in the personal needs of their staff, encourage self-development, use participative decision-making, give feedback and publicly recognize team achievements. In summary, female managers report they use more interpersonal-oriented leadership behaviors compared to male managers (Carless, 1998). The review by Eagly and Johnson was the first systematic and comprehensive analysis of gender differences in leadership. Earlier reviews (e. g. , Bartol & Martin, 1986; Dobbins & Platz, 1986) were based on limited samples and were criticized because they failed to specify the selection criteria for inclusion in the review. Eagly and Johnson's (1990) meta-analysis of gender differences in leadership revealed mixed findings. An analysis of task-oriented style and interpersonal oriented style showed that women and men did not differ on these dimensions in organizational studies. Differences were noted for studies in which the sample did not formally hold a leadership position (experimental and assessment studies). On the other hand, significant gender differences were reported in the use of democratic leadership in organizational, experimental and assessment studies. Women used a more participative and inclusive style of leadership and men were more likely to use a directive, controlling style. Carless, 1998). Studies which have used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ; Bass, 1985b; Avolio, et al. , 1995) to examine gender differences in leadership style have reported conflicting findings. Bass, Avolio and Atwater (1996) examined gender differences in leader behaviour with three samples. Sample I consisted of 79 female and 150 male upper-level leaders who worked for American hi-tec, Fortune 50 f irms. Subordinate ratings of leadership (N = 877) indicated that female leaders were rated higher on all transformational leader behaviors compared to male leaders. These findings are consistent with an earlier study of leaders in the Roman Catholic church (Druskat, 1994). Sample 2, consisted of first-level supervisors employed by a number of organizations, 38 of the leaders were female and 58 were male. Subordinates (N = 271) observed no gender differences for the subscales of Intellectual Stimulation and Inspirational Motivation, however, females were reported as higher on the subscales of Charisma and Individual Consideration. Sample 2 findings were consistent with an earlier study reported by Bass and Avolio (1994). Generally, in studies that report significant differences between females and males the effect sizes are very small and it is therefore argued that there is no practical differences between female and male leaders (Yammarino, Dubinsky, Comer & Jolson, 1997). In the third sample of 154 female leaders and 131 male leaders who worked for nonprofitable organizations (e. g. health care), subordinates (N = 913) reported no differences in the leader behavior of females and male leaders. Similary, Komives (1991) found no difference between female and male manager self-ratings of transformational leadership, with the exception of Intellectual Stimulation; women managers were found to be significantly higher than their male counterparts(Carless,1998). According to the gender-centred perspective, individual attributes vary according to their gender (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Hennig & Jardin, 1977; Loden, 1985). This approach proposes that, women develop a feminine style of leadership, which is characterized by caring and nurturance, and men adopt a masculine style of leadership, which is dominating and taskoriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). Similarly, the social-role theory (Eagly, 1987) proposes that individuals behave in accordance with societal expectations about their gender role. Through the socialization process, people learn to conform to cultural expectations about their gender role. The feminine model of leadership includes typical transformational leadership behaviors, for example, participatory decision-making, collaboration and quality interpersonal relationships between leader and subordinate (Eagly, Karau, Miner & Johnson, 1994; Helgesen, 1990; Loden, 1985). Hence, it could be expected that females and males may differ in their use of certain transformational leadership behaviors(Carless,1998). The structural perspective suggests that the organizational role the individual occupies is more important then the gender of the individual (Kanter, 1977). Within organizations clear guidelines exist for the expected performance of managers, hence the major issue for managers is meeting the organization's expectations regarding effective management performance, not conforming to culturally defined gender roles. Assuming female and male managers occupy the same role within an organization and have equivalent access to status and power there is no reason to expect gender differences in leadership styles (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995). This suggests that when examining gender differences in leadership behavior it is important to compare women and men who occupy the same position in the organization and are at the same level in the organizational hierarchy. (Carless ,1998). Eagly and her colleagues (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Eagly, et al. , 1995) suggest that gender differences vary according to the extent of gender congeniality. Gender congeniality is described as the â€Å"fit between gender roles and particular leadership roles† (Eagley, et al. , 1995, p. 29). It reflects an individual's interest in a specific leadership role and appraisal of their competence to perform that role. In some organizations, such as the military, leadership positions are defined in more masculine terms than feminine. Thus, leadership positions in these organizations would be described as congenial to men. In others, such as education and nursing, leadership is defined in more feminine ways and therefore could be described as conge nial to women(Carless, 1998). 3. 5Effective Leadership Since women began to climb the corporate ladder, authorities have asked if they have what it takes to lead groups and organizations. According to the research, while men and women are equally effective in some settings, more often effectiveness depends on the fit between the setting and management gender. For example, women's typically more mentoring, coaching style is more favorably received in female-dominated professions; men's more typically â€Å"command and control† style is well received in male-dominated professions. http: www. sychologymatters. org/womanboss . In essence therefore, all things being equal, men and women are equally effective. But given varied work settings and a workplace whose top managers are still more likely to be male, all things rarely are equal. For example, women are slightly more likely to be â€Å"transformational† leaders, serving as role models, helping employees develop their skills, and motivating them to be dedicated and creative. That approach may actually be more effective in today's less hierarchical organizations. But not all workplaces are alike: The participatory style may backfire in traditional male settings such as the military or organized sports. Conversely, the command-and-control style more typical of men may backfire in a social-service agency or retail outlet. (http:www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) A 1995 review by Alice Eagly, PhD, Steven Karau, PhD and Mona Makhijani, PhD, of more than 80 different studies found that when aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. The leaders or managers assessed in the studies were typically first-level or first-line supervisors, with a strong minority of studies looking at mid-level managers or managers of mixed or unknown levels. The analysis also showed that women were more effective leaders in female-dominated or female-oriented settings, and that men were more effective leaders in male-dominated or male-oriented settings. Thus working in a leadership role congruent with one's gender gives the perception that one is more effective. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Theories of transformational leadership (e. . , Bass, 1985a; Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Sashkin & Burke; 1990; Trice & Beyer, 1986) have focused on identifying a range of leadership behaviors which contribute to effective performance. Although these theories differ in the leadership behaviors they distinguish, there exists a number of common themes. Transformational leaders articulate a vision, use lateral or non traditional thinking, encourage individual development, give regular feedback, use participative decision-making, and promote a cooperative and trusting work environment. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Densten, et al. ; (2002) emphasise that successful leaders are able to build a strong corporate culture, are truth-tellers, can see the invisible, that is, spot potential winners or identify trends before their rivals or customers, are fast learners and good communicators. Leaders are expected to anticipate future events before they occur and have a vision to overcome uncertainties. Managers on the other hand are expected to run current operations effectively and efficiently (Bratton, et al. ; 2005). Darling in Swanepoel, Erasmus et al argues â€Å"a real test of successful leadership in management lies in giving, to the greatest extent possible, opportunities to others within the situational context of the firm. One does not have to be brilliant to be a good leader, but you have to understand people- how they feel, what makes them tick, and the most effective ways to influence them. †(Swanepoel, Erasmus, Van Wyk, Schenk; 359) DuBrin (1995) state that in order to be a leader one has to make a difference and to facilitate positive changes. They further state that the common characteristic of effective leaders is their ability to inspire and stimulate others to achieve worthwhile goals (Dubrin; 1995). Drucker (2004) outlines eight practices followed by effective executives. He says that they ask, â€Å"What needs to be done? † and â€Å"What is right for the enterprise†. Effective executives also develop action plans, they take responsibility for decisions and communicating, focus on opportunities rather than problems, run productive meetings and focus on â€Å"we† rather than â€Å"I† (Drucker; 2004). Drucker (2004) further explains that the first two practices gives them the knowledge they need, the next four help to convert this knowledge to effective action and the last two ensure that the whole organization feels responsible and accountable. Researchers are especially interested in the question of whether a management style more associated with women – a less authoritarian, more nurturing approach – will â€Å"click† as the workplace generally shifts to more team-oriented structures that thrive under a less directive approach. REFERENCES Ashforth BE & Saks M. 996: Socialization Tactics: Longitudinal Effects on Newcomer Adjustment, Academy of Management Journal, 39, 147-178 Alvesson M & BillingYD. 1997:Understanding gender in organisations. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, (Winter): 19-31. Bass, B. , & Avolio, B. (1994). Shatter the glass ceiling: Women may make better managers. Human Resource Management, 33, 549-560. Bass, B. , Avolio, B. , & Atwater, L. (1996). The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 45, 5-34. Bennis W. 1992: On the Leading Edge of Change, Executive Excellence v9n4? Spacing? Check your referencing guidelines (Apr), p5-6 Bloodgood M, Bolino MC, Lester SW & Turnley WH. 2002 Not Seeing Eye to eye: differences in supervisor and subordinate perceptions of and attributions for psychological contract breach, Journal of Occupational Psychology 23 (2); 39 Bendixen M & Thomas A. 000: The Management Implications of Ethnicity in South Africa, Journal of International Business Studies, 31, 3,507-519 Blunt P& Jones ML. 1996: Exploring the limits of Western leadership theory in East Asia and Africa, Personnel Review, 26,1/2,6-23 Bratton J, Grint K & Nelson DL: 2005. Organisational Leadership: Ohio: South-Western Thomson Bronwell J. 1992: â€Å"Women in hospitality management†. In Kay C & Monarz E. 2005: Lodging man agement success: Personal antecedents, achievements, KSAs and situational factors, Hospitality Management, 25: 324-341. Butterfield, A. and Grinnel, J. P. (1999). Re-viewing gender, leadership, and managerial behavior: Do three decades of research tell us anything? In G. N. Powell (Ed. ), Handbook of gender and work. Thousand Oaks, Calif. : Sage Carless SA. 1998: Gender differences in transformational leadership: an examination of superior, leader, and subordinate perspectives. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Carli LL. and Eagly A H. 2001: Gender, hierarchy, and leadership: an introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 629-636. Colff L. 003: Leadership lessons from the African tree, Journal of Management Decision, 41(3), 257-261 Cooper DR. & Schindler PS. 2003: Business Research Methods: New York: McGraw Hill Denston LI, Gray J & Sarros JC. 2002: Leadership and its impact on organisational culture, International Journal of Business Studies, 10 (2): 1-26 Denton. M & Vloeberghs D. 2003: Leadership challenges for organisations in the New South Africa, Journal of Leadership & Organisational Development , 24(2), 84-95 Dickson MW, Hartog DN & Mitchelson JK. 003: Research on leadership in a cross-cultural context: Making progress, and raising new questions, The Leadership Quarterly 14, 729-768 Drucker PF. 2004: What makes an effective executive, Harvard Business Review, 59-63 DuBrin AJ. 1995: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills: Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company Eagly AH. Johannesen-Schmidt MC. & van Engen M. 2003: Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 95, pp. 569-591. Eagly AH. and Johannesen-Schmidt M. 001: The leadership styles of women and men. Journal of Social Issues, 57, pp. 781-797. Eagly AH. & Johnson BT. 1990: â€Å"Gender and Leadership Style: A Meta-analysis†, Psychological Bulletin 108, pp. 233-256 Eagly AH. Karau SJ and Makhijani MG. 1995: Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117, pp. 125-145. Hogg MA. 2001: â€Å"A Social Identity theory of Leadership†, personality and social psychology review, 5, 3, 184-200 Javidan M & House RJ. 2001: Cultural acumen for the global manager: Lessons from project GLOBE. Organisational Dynamics, 29(4), 289-305 Jung DI, Bass BM, & Sosik J J. 1995: Bridging leadership and culture: A theoretical consideration of transformational leadership and collectivistic cultures. Journal of Leadership Studies, 2, 3-18 Panapoulos F. No date: Gender differences in transformational leadership among the field leaders of New South Wales Police students: http:www. aic. gov. au/conferences/policewomen2/Panapoulos Accessed on 2006/06/5 Rosener J. 1990: â€Å"Ways Women Lead† Harvard Business Review 68, pp. 119-125. Rousseau DM, Tijoriwala AS. 998: Assessing psychological contracts: issues, alternatives and measures, organisational culture, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 19:679-695 Schein E. 1990: â€Å"Organisational Culture† American Psychologist , 45: 109-119 Swanepoel B, Erasmus B, Van Wyk M & Schenk H. 2003: South African Human Resource Management: Theory & Practice. 3rd Edition. Cape Town: Juta & Company Unknown. No date: When the boss is a woman, Men and women are equally effective in settings that match gender roles:http:www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss. Accessed on 2006/08/25

Beneficios públicos que son carga pública

Beneficios pà ºblicos que son carga pà ºblica Recibir ciertos beneficios pà ºblicos en Estados Unidos puede ser causa para que el gobierno no apruebe una peticià ³n de tarjeta de residencia (green card) o una visa. Los migrantes considerados como una carga pà ºblica y esa calificacià ³n convierte a los extranjeros en inadmisibles en Estados Unidos. Esto es, se les puede denegar beneficios migratorios y/o visas. Esto es asà ­ por aplicacià ³n del artà ­culo 212(a)(4) de la Ley de Inmigracià ³n y Nacionalidad, conocida en inglà ©s por sus siglas de INA. Con fecha del 12 de agosto de 2019 el gobierno del presidente Donald Trump ha anunciado nuevas medidas sobre cà ³mo debe interpretarse la regla de carga pà ºblica. Por ello a continuacià ³n se explica cà ³mo es la situacià ³n actual y quà © supone la nueva regla y cundo entra en vigor. Carga pà ºblica antes de los à ºltimos cambios del gobierno de Trump Se estimaba que un emigrante era carga pà ºblica y, por lo tanto podà ­a ser negada su peticià ³n de tarjeta de residencia permanente o visa cuando ms de la mitad de sus ingresos en dinero en efectivo –esto es, en cash– procedà ­an de programas econà ³micos del gobierno como, por ejemplo, SSI (Supplemental Security Income) o TANF (Temporary Assistence to Needy Families). Adems, podrà ­a ser considerado tambià ©n carga pà ºblica el migrante est ingresado en una institucià ³n a cargo del gobierno. Carga pà ºblica despuà ©s de los cambios introducidos por el gobierno del presidente Trump Tal y como ha anunciado el gobierno a mediados del mes de agosto de 2019, a partir del 15 de octubre de ese aà ±o entrarn en vigor las nuevas reglas. Segà ºn dichas nuevas reglas se podr negar la tarjeta de residencia permanente o una visa a cualquier persona que, en su totalidad, se considere que es o puede convertirse en carga pà ºblica. Por lo tanto, pueden dar lugar a la negacià ³n de un beneficio migratorio uno o varios de los siguientes factores: haber recibido dinero del gobierno a travà ©s de uno de sus programasrecibir beneficios no econà ³micos como cupones de alimentos, Medicaid o ayudas a la viviendatener pocos ingresos econà ³micosdesconocimiento del idioma inglà ©s o nivel de estudios bajospadecimiento de una enfermedad Estn excluidos de esas nuevas reglas los refugiados y asilados, los menores de 21 aà ±os de edad, las mujeres embarazadas que reciben Medicaid y los miembros en activo del Ejà ©rcito de Estados Unidos. Asimismo, no se incluye en estas nuevas reglas la asistencia mà ©dica de urgencia. Fechas: cundo entra en vigor y no retroactividad En primer lugar, cabe destacar que es importante estar atentos a posibles cambios en este asunto ya que se espera que se dispute en corte judicial. Y, en segundo lugar, la nueva regla comenzar a aplicarse con fecha del 15 de octubre de 2019 y no tendr efecto retroactivo. En otras palabras, los migrantes que recibieron legalmente un beneficio no econà ³mico como por ejemplo cupones de alimentos antes de entrar en vigor la nueva regla no se vern afectados negativamente en sus solicitudes de visa o de tarjeta de residencia permanente. Dos casos diferentes de carga pà ºblica En los casos en los que un ciudadano estadounidense o un residente permanente legal patrocina a un familiar una tarjeta de residencia permanente, dicho patrocinador responde durante 10 aà ±os por la persona patrocinada, como consecuencia de firmar la Declaracià ³n de sostenimiento econà ³mico, tambià ©n conocido como affidavit of support. En otras palabras, si el patrocinado es una carga pà ºblica, el gobierno pedir al patrocinador que le regrese el dinero. Otro caso bien diferente donde la carga pà ºblica es importante es el de turistas que tienen un bebà © en los Estados Unidos y no pagan por la factura del parto ni el pap o la mam del bebà © ni su seguro mà ©dico. En estos casos, cuando el sistema informtico establece la relacià ³n entre el bebà © americano y sus padres turistas puede exigir ver el pago del gasto del hospital, y si los padres o su seguro no se han hecho cargo, las autoridades migratorias pueden cancelar, revocar o no renovar las visas de los padres e impedirles el ingreso a los Estados Unidos. Carga pà ºblica y prioridad para deportacià ³n Segà ºn una nueva polà ­tica del gobierno de Trump, desde 1 de octubre de 2018 los migrantes que abusen de beneficios pà ºblicos pueden recibir una notificacià ³n conocida como NTA para presentarse ante un juez migratorio el cual iniciar un proceso de deportacià ³n contra el inmigrante por considerarlo carga pà ºblica. Carga pà ºblica En las nuevas reglas de carga pà ºblica se incluyen, adems de beneficios econà ³micos, consideraciones como beneficios no econà ³micos (cupones de alimentos, ayuda vivienda, Medicaid), enfermedades, escasos ingresos, o nivel bajo de estudios.Las nuevas reglas entrarn en vigor el 15 de octubre de 2019.El gobierno puede negar una solicitud de visa o de tarjeta de residencia permanente a todas las personas que considere que son o pueden ser carga pà ºblica. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

How to Stay Productive As the Summer Drags On

How to Stay Productive As the Summer Drags On After a long harsh winter of being stuck inside; summer is known as the season of outdoors fun. Productivity and focus on work is always a struggle during this time. We catch ourselves day dreaming of being outside; going to the beach or taking a walk in the park. But it is hard to enjoy the rays of sunshine while being stuck at work. Here are 8 tips on how to fight the summer productivity slump. Source [Wrike]

Internal and External Analysis of General Motors Research Paper

Internal and External Analysis of General Motors - Research Paper Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that PESTLE aids in the evaluation of the variables in the external environment that affect the ability of a company to operate efficiently in a certain industry mainly, in the long run. Political: Regulations on the safety and environmental effects of vehicles in the automotive industry are one of the political influents of the external environment. Re-gelation and successful implementation of guidelines on vehicle’s safety and environmental impacts began in 1960 and have increased since then. Economic: the automotive industry is important in the economy through the creation of jobs and being the main user of iron, steel, plastic, vinyl, textiles, rubber, computer chips, and aluminum creating demand and augmenting economic growth. Social: these factors include increased concern for the environment, emphasis on eco-friendly products, and attitudes. The automobile industry produces quality vehicles that provide for esteem and provide for their owners and ensuring esteem and safety. Environmental: challenges of environmental protection in accordance with US Environmental Protection Agency affect the automotive industry. Addressing issues of climate change is one of the main factors that have to be considered by the automotive industry players. So what? According to the PESTLE, there are many things that need to be considered. Being in the automotive industry there are a lot of legal rules and regulation that need to be followed, such as the Automobile Recycling law. The environmental factor also plays a big a part in the automotive industry. Every time a company produces a car they need to address the climate change. All in all the industry provides safe cars and also creates a lot of jobs.

Performance management homework 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Performance management homework 1 - Essay Example To determine this rate, all the machining, assembly, and fabricating direct costs must be multiplied with the multiply of their sum total. This calculation will help in determining or estimating the overhead rates. Precision Joinery Co. Manufactures high-quality wooden products for the house-building sector, specializing in window-frames, doors and kitchen cabinets. For many years, the company’s costing system has relied on the assumption that direct labor hours were the critical factor in the occurrence of overheads. Accordingly, overheads were allocated to products on the basis of the direct labor hours taken to manufacture each product. The company’s relationship with its customers has changed in recent years. House-building companies have become more rigorous in their demands in terms of both product design and service support after delivery. The Managing Director of Precision Joinery Co. Has become increasingly disillusioned with the current product costing system, which he believes to be producing costs which do not reflect the change in the market environment initiated by the company’s customers. Under duress, the Management Accountant has carried out a further examination of available costing information, some of which the Managing Director considers useful in a possible redefinition of the costing system. The activity based costing or the ABC cost allocation often assigns the manufacturing overhead costs of the products in a highly logical way than the normal or the traditional approach that simply allocates costs on the basis of the machine hours (Armstrong and Baron, 2005; p. 85). The ABC initially assigns costs to activities that really lead to the overhead. After that, it assigns costs to activities or products that are actually demanding the activities. The overall result often maps the miscalculations on the true cost of the manufacturing overhead. Therefore, it is apparent that the ABC